23 THE RICHNESS OF BEING
HEREANDTHEREiuralHistoryMuseuminLondon,builtintorecessesalongtheucorridorsorstandiweenglasscasesofmineralsandostricheggsauryorsoofotherproductiveclutter,aresecretdoors—atleastsecretinthesethereisnothingaboutthemtoattractthevisitor’snotice.Occasionallyyoumightseesomeohthedistractedmannerandiinglywillfulhairthatmarkthescholaremergefromohedoorsandhastendownacorridor,probablytodisappearthroughanotherdooralittlefurtheron,butthisisarelativelyrareevent.Forthemostpartthedoorsstayshut,givingnohintthatbeyondthemexistsanother—aparallel—NaturalHistoryMuseumasvastas,andinmanywaysmorewonderfulthahepubliowsandadores.
TheNaturalHistoryMuseumtainssomeseventymilliosfromeveryrealmoflifeandeveryerofthepla,withanotherhuhousandorsoaddedtothecolleeachyear,butitisreallyonlybehindthesesthatyougetasenseofwhatatreasurehousethisis.Incupboardsandetsandlongroomsfullofclose-packedshelvesarekepttensofthousandsofpickledanimalsinbottles,millionsofispiosquaresofcard,drawersofshinymollusks,bonesofdinosaurs,skullsofearlyhumans,endlessfoldersoflypressedplants.ItisalittlelikewanderingthroughDarwin’sbrain.Thespiritroomaloneholdsfifteenmilesofshelvingtainingjaruponjarofanimalspreservedihylatedspirit.
BackherearespescollectedbyJosephBanksinAustralia,AlexandervonHumboldtinAmazonia,DarwinontheBeaglevoyage,andmuchelsethatiseitherveryrareorhistoricallyimportantorboth.Manypeoplewouldlovetogettheirhandsohings.Afewactuallyhave.In1954themuseumacquiredanoutstandingornithologicalcollefromtheestateofadevotedcolleedRichardMeizhagen,authorofBirdsofArabia,amongotherscholarlyworks.Meizhagenhadbeenafaithfulattehemuseumforyears,ingalmostdailytotakenotesfortheproduofhisbooksandmonographs.
Wheesarrived,thecuratorsexcitedlyjimmiedthemopentoseewhattheyhadbeeandweresurprised,toputitmildly,todiscoverthataverylargenumberofspesborethemuseum’sownlabels.Mr.Meizhagen,ittur,hadbeenhelpinghimselftotheircollesforyears.Italsoexplainedhishabitofwearingalargeovercoatevenduringwarmweather.
Afewyearslateracharmingularinthemollusksdepartment—“quiteadistinguishedgentleman,”Iwastold—wascaughtiingvaluedseashellsintothehollowlegsofhisZimmerframe.
“Idon’tsupposethere’sanythingisomebodysomewheredoesn’tcovet,”
RichardForteysaidwithathoughtfulairashegavemeatourofthebeguilingworldthatisthebehind-the-sespartofthemuseum.Wewahroughafusiomentswherepeoplesatatlargetablesdoingi,iigativethingswitharthropodsandpalmfrondsandboxesofyellowedbones.Everywheretherewasanairofunhurriedthhness,ofpeoplebeingengagedinagigantideavorthatcouldneverbepletedandmustn’tberushed.In1967,Ihadread,themuseumissueditsreportontheJohnMurrayExpedition,anIndianOsurvey,forty-fouryearsaftertheexpeditionhadcluded.ThisisaworldwherethingsmoveattheirownpacludingatinyliftForteyandIsharedwithascholarlylookingelderlymanwithwhomForteychattedgeniallyandfamiliarlyasweproceededupwardsatabouttheratethatsedimentsarelaiddown.
Whenthemaed,Forteysaidtome:“ThatwasaveryniceamedNormanwho’sspentforty-twoyearsstudyingonespeciesofplant,St.John’swort.Heretiredin1989,buthestillesineveryweek.”
“Howdoyouspendforty-twoyearsononespeciesofplant?”Iasked.
“It’sremarkable,isn’tit?”Forteyagreed.Hethoughtforamoment.“He’sverythhapparently.”Theliftdooropeorevealabricked-overopening.Forteylookedfouhat’sverystrange,”hesaid.“ThatusedtobeBotanybackthere.”Hepunchedabuttonforanotherfloor,andwefoundourwayatlengthtoBotanybymeansofbackstaircasesanddiscreettrespassthroughyetmoredepartmentswhereiigatorstoiledlovinglyoveronce-livingobjects.AndsoitwasthatIwasintroducedtoLenEllisandthequietworldofbryophytes—mossestotherestofus.
WhenEmersoicallyhatmossesfavorthenorthsidesoftrees(“Themossupontheforestbark,ole-starwhenthenightwasdark”)hereallymeantlis,forintheeeurymossesandlisweren’tdistinguished.Truemossesaren’tactuallyfussyaboutwheretheygrow,sotheyarenogoodasnaturalpasses.Infact,mossesaren’tactuallymuchgoodforanything.“Perhapsgroupofplantshassofewuses,ercialoreic,asthemosses,”wroteHenryS.ard,perhapsjustatouchsadly,inHowtoKnowtheMossesandLiverworts,publishedin1956andstilltobefoundonmanylibraryshelvesasalmosttheonlyattempttopopularizethesubject.
Theyare,however,prolific.Evenwithlisremoved,bryophytesisabusyrealm,withovertenthousandspeciestaihinsomesevenhundredgeheplumpandstatelyMossFloraofBritainandIrelandbyA.J.E.Smithrunstosevenhundredpages,andBritainandIrelandarebynomeansoutstandinglymossyplaces.“Thetropicsarewhereyoufindthevariety,”LenEllistoldme.Aquiet,spareman,hehasbeenattheNaturalHistoryMuseumfortwenty-sevenyearsandcuratorofthedepartmentsince1990.“YougooutintoaplaceliketheraisofMalaysiaandfindnewvarietieswithrelativeease.Ididthatmyselfnotlongago.Ilookeddownandthereeciesthathadneverbeenrecorded.”
“Sowedon’tknowhoeciesarestilltobediscovered?”
“Oh,no.Noidea.”
Youmightnotthinktherewouldbethatmanypeopleintheworldpreparedtodevotelifetimestothestudyofsomethingsoinescapablylowkey,butinfactmosspeoplehehundredsandtheyfeelverystronglyabouttheirsubject.“Oh,yes,”Ellistoldme,“themeetingsgetverylivelyattimes.”
Iaskedhimforanexampleoftroversy.
“Well,here’soneinflictedonusbyoneofyourtrymen,”hesaid,smilinglightly,andopenedaheftyreferenceworktainingillustrationsofmosseswhosemostnotablecharacteristictotheuninstructedeyewastheirunysimilarityooahat,”hesaid,tappingamoss,“usedtobeonegenus,Drepanocladus.Nowit’sbeenreaothree:Drepanocladus,Wamstorfia,andHamatacoulis.”
“Anddidthatleadtoblows?”Iaskedperhapsatouchhopefully.
“Well,itmadesemadeperfese.Butitmeantalotofreofcollesanditputallthebooksoutofdateforatime,sotherewasabitof,youknow,grumbling.”
Mossesoffermysteriesaswell,hetoldme.Onefamouscase—famoustomosspeopleanyway—involvedaretiringtypecalledHyophilastanfordensis,whichwasdiscoveredonthecampusofStanfordUyinCaliforniaandlateralsofoundgrowingbesideapathinwall,ohwesttipofEngland,buthasneverbeenenteredanywhereiween.Howitcametoexistintwosuectedlocationsisanybody’sguess.“It’snowknownasHennediellastanfordensis,”Ellissaid.“Anotherrevision.”
Wehoughtfully.
Whenanewmossisfounditmustbeparedwithallothermossestomakesurethatithasn’tbeenrecordedalready.Thenaformaldescriptionmustbewrittenandillustrationspreparedandtheresultpublishedinarespectablejournal.Thewholeprocessseldomtakeslessthansixmonths.Thetwehturywasnotagreatageformosstaxonomy.Muchofthetury’sworkwasdevotedtountanglingthefusionsandduplicatiobehindbytheeeury.
Thatwasthegoldenageofmosscolleg.(YoumayrecallthatCharlesLyell’sfatherwasagreatmossman.)OlynamedEnglishman,GeeHunt,huntedBritishmossessoassiduouslythatheprobablytributedtotheextinofseveralspecies.ButitisthankstosucheffortsthatLenEllis’scolleisoheworld’smostprehensive.All780,000ofhisspesarepressedintefoldedsheetsofheavypaper,someveryoldandcoveredwithspideryVictorianscript.Some,forallweknew,mighthavebeeninthehandofRobertBrown,thegreatVictorianbotanist,unveilerofBrownianmotionandthenucleusofcells,whofoundedandranthemuseum’sbotamentforitsfirstthirty-oneyearsuntilhisdeathin1858.AllthespesarekeptinlustrousoldmahoganyetssostrikinglyfiIremarkeduponthem.
“Oh,thosewereSirJosephBanks’s,fromhishouseinSohoSquare,”Ellissaidcasually,asifidentifyipurchasefromIkea.“HehadthembuilttoholdhisspesfromtheEndeavourvoyage.”Heregardedtheetsthoughtfully,asifforthefirsttimeinalongwhile.“Idon’tknoeendedupwiththeminbryology,”headded.
Thiswasanamazingdisclosure.JosephBankswasEngland’sgreatestbotanist,andtheEndeavourvoyage—thatistheoneonwhichCaptainCookchartedthe1769transitofVenusandclaimedAustraliaforthe,amongratheralotelse—wasthegreatestbotanicalexpeditioninhistory.Bankspaid￡10,000,about</strong>1millionintoday’smohimselfandapartyofhers—anaturalist,asecretary,threeartists,andfourservants—ohree-yearadventurearoundthewoodnessknowswhatthebluffCaptainadeofsuchavelvetyandpamperedassemblage,butheseemstohavelikedBankswellenoughandcouldnotbutadmirehistalentsinbotany—afeelingsharedbyposterity.
Neverbeforeorsincehasabotanicalpartyenjoyedgreatertriumphs.Partlyitwasbecausethevoyagetookinsomanyneworlittle-knownplaces—TierradelFuego,Tahiti,NewZealand,Australia,NewGuinea—butmostlyitwasbecauseBankswassuastuteandiivecollector.EvenwhenuogoashoreatRiodeJaneirobecauseofaquarantiedthroughabaleoffoddersentfortheship’slivestodmadenewdiscoveries.
Nothing,itseems,escapedhisnotice.Altogetherhebroughtbackthirtythousandplantspes,includingfourteenhuseenbefore—enoughtoincreasebyaboutaquarterthenumberofknownplantsintheworld.
ButBanks’sgrandcachewasonlypartofthetotalhaulinwhatwasanalmostabsurdlyacquisitiveage.Plantcollegieeurybecameakindofiionalmania.Gloryahalikeawaitedthosewhocouldfindnewspecies,andbotanistsandadventurerswenttothemostincrediblelengthstosatisfytheworld’scravingforhorticulturaly.ThomasNuttall,themanwhohewisteriaafterCasparWistar,cametoAmericaasanuneducatedpridiscoveredapassionforplantsandwalkedhalfwayacrossthetryandbackagain,colleghundredsofgrowingthingsneverseenbefore.
JohnFraser,forwhomisheFraserfir,spentyearsinthewildernesscollegonbehalfofCatheriheGreatandemergedatlengthtofindthatRussiahadanewczarwhothoughthewasmadandrefusedtohonorhistract.FrasertookeverythingtoChelsea,whereheopenedanurseryandmadeahandsomelivingsellingrhododendrons,azaleas,magnolias,Virginiacreepers,asters,andotherialexoticatoadelightedEnglishgentry.
Hugesumscouldbemadewiththerightfinds.JohnLyon,anamateurbotanist,spenttwohardanddangerousyearscollegspes,butclearedalmost</strong>200,000intoday’smoneyforhisefforts.Many,however,justdiditfortheloveofbotany.NuttallgavemostofwhathefoundtotheLiverpoolBotanicGardeuallyhebecamedirectorofHarvard’sBotanicGardenandauthoroftheencyclopedieraofNorthAmeriPlants(whiotonlywrotebutalselytypeset).
Andthatwasjustplants.Therewasalsoallthefaunaofthenewworlds—kangaroos,kiwis,ras,bobcats,mosquitoes,andothercuriousformsbeyondimagining.Thevolumeoflifeohwasseeminglyinfinite,asJonathanSwiftnotedinsomefamouslines:
So,naturalistsobserve,afleaHathsmallerfleasthatonhimprey;Andthesehavesmallerstilltobite’em;Andsoproceedadinfinitum.
Allthisnewinformatioobefiled,ordered,andparedasknown.
Theworldwasdesperateforaworkablesystemofclassification.FortuherewasamaninSwedenwhostoodreadytoprovideit.
HisnamewasCarlLinné(laterged,withpermission,tothemorearistocratiLinné),butheisrememberednowbytheLatinizedformCarolusLinnaeus.Hewasbornin1707inthevillageofR?shultinsouthernSweden,thesonofapoorbutambitiousLutherancurate,andwassuchasluggishstudentthathisexasperatedfatherapprenticedhim(or,bysomeats,nearlyapprenticedhim)toacobbler.Appalledattheprospectofspendingalifetimebangingtatoleather,youngLinnébeggedforanotherce,whichwasgranted,andhehereafterwaveredfromacademicdistin.HestudiedmedieinSwedenandHolland,thoughhispassionbecamethenaturalworld.Intheearly1730s,stillinhistwenties,hebegantoproducecataloguesoftheworld’splantandanimalspecies,usingasystemofhisowndevising,andgraduallyhisfamegrew.
Rarelyhasamanbeenmorefortablewithhisowness.Hespentmuchofhisleisuretimepenninglongandflatteringportraitsofhimself,declaringthattherehadnever“beeerbotanistorzoologist,”andthathissystemofclassificationwas“thegreatestachievementintherealmofsce.”ModestlyhesuggestedthathisgravestoneshouldbeartheinscriptionPrincepsBotani,“PrinceofBotanists.”Itwasneverwisetoquestionhisgenerousself-assessments.Thosewhodidsottofindtheyhadweedserthem.
Linnaeus’sotherstrikingqualitywasanabiding—attimes,onemightsay,afeverish—preoccupationwithsex.Hearticularlystruckbythesimilaritybetweeainbivalvesandthefemalepudenda.Tothepartsofonespeciesofclamhegavethenamesvulva,labia,pubes,anus,andhymen.Hegroupedplantsbythenatureoftheirreproductiveansandehemwithainglyanthropomorphicamorousness.Hisdescriptionsofflowersandtheirbehaviorarefullofrefereo“promiscuousintercourse,”“barrenes,”
and“thebridalbed.”Inspriei-quotedpassage:
Loveeseventotheplants.Malesandfemales...holdtheirnuptials...
showingbytheirsexualanswhicharemales,whichfemales.Theflowers’
leavesserveasabridalbed,whichtheCreatorhassogloriouslyarranged,adorhsuoblebedcurtains,andperfumedwithsomanysoftststhatthebridegroomwithhisbridemighttherecelebratetheirnuptialswithsomuchthegreatersolemnity.Whenthebedhasthusbeenmadeready,thenisthetimeforthebridegroomtoembracehisbelovedbrideandsurrenderhimselftoher.
HenamedonegenusofplantsClitoria.Notsurprisingly,manypeoplethoughthimstrange.
Buthissystemofclassificationwasirresistible.BeforeLinnaeus,plantsweregivehatwereexpansivelydescriptive.TheongroundcherrywascalledPhysalisamnoramosissimeramisangulosisglabrisfoliisdeis.LinnaeusloppeditbacktoPhysalisangulata,whiameitstilluses.Theplantworldwasequallydisorderedbyinsistening.AbotanistcouldnotbesureifRosasylvestrisalbacumrubore,folioglabrowasthesameplantthatotherscalledRosasylvestrisinodoraseua.LinnaeussolvedthepuzzlementbycallingitsimplyRosaa.Tomaketheseexcisionsusefulandagreeabletoallrequiredmuchmorethansimplybeingdecisive.Itrequiredaninstinct—agenius,infact—forspottingthesalientqualitiesofaspecies.
TheLinnaeansystemissowellestablishedthatwehardlyimagineaive,butbeforeLinnaeus,systemsofclassificatioenhighlywhimsical.Animalsmightbecategorizedbywhethertheywerewildordomesticated,terrestrialoraquatic,largeorsmall,evehertheywerethoughthandsomeandnobleorofnosequence.Buffedhisanimalsbytheirutilitytoman.Anatomicalsiderationsbarelycameintoit.Linnaeusmadeithislife’sworktorectifythisdeficybyclassifyingallthatwasaliveacctoitsphysicalattributes.Taxonomy—whichistosaythesceofclassification—hasneverlookedback.
Italltooktime,ofcourse.ThefirsteditionofhisgreatSystemaNaturaein1735wasjustfourteenpageslong.ButitgrewailbythetwelftheditiothatLinnaeuswouldlivetosee—itextehreevolumesand2,300pages.Intheendhenamedorrecordedsome13,000speciesofplantandanimal.Otherworksweremoreprehensive—JohnRay’sthree-volumeHisteneralisPlantaruminEngland,pletedageionearlier,coveredhan18,625speciesofplantsalowhatLinnaeushadthatnooneelsecouldtouchweresistency,order,simplicity,andtimelihoughhisworkdatesfromthe1730s,itdidn’tbeewidelyknowninEnglanduntilthe1760s,justiomakeLinnaeusakindoffatherfiguretoBritishnaturalists.Nowherewashissystemembracedwithgreaterenthusiasm(whichiswhy,forohing,theLinnaeanSocietyhasitshomeinLondonandnotSto).
Linnaeuswasnotflawless.Hemaderoomformythicalbeastsand“monstroushumans”
whosedescriptionshegulliblyacceptedfromseamenandinativetravelers.Amongthesewereawildman,Homoferus,whowalkedonallfoursandhadmasteredtheartofspeedHomocaudatus,“manwithatail.”Butthenitwas,asweshouldnet,analtogethermorecredulousage.EventhegreatJosephBankstookakeenandbelievingiinaseriesofreportedsightingsofmermaidsofftheScottishcoastattheendoftheeighteeury.Forthemostpart,however,Linnaeus’slapseswereoffsetbysoundandoftenbrillianttaxonomy.Amongotheraplishments,hesawthatwhalesbelohidotheronterrestrialanimalsintheorderQuadrupedia(latergedtoMammalia),whioonehaddonebefore.
Inthebeginning,Linnaeusintendedonlytogiveeachplantagenusnameandanumber—volvulus1,volvulus2,andsoon—butsoonrealizedthatthatwasunsatisfactoryandhitonthebinomialarrahatremainsattheheartofthesystemtothisday.Theiiinallywastousethebinomialsystemforeverything—rocks,minerals,diseases,winds,whateverexistedinnature.Noteveryoneembracedthesystemwarmly.Manyweredisturbedbyitsteowardindelicacy,whichwasslightlyironicasbeforeLiheesofmanyplantsandanimalshadbeeilyvulgar.Thedandelionwaslongpopularlyknownasthe“pissabed”becauseofitssupposeddiureticproperties,andothernamesineverydayuseincludedmare’sfart,nakedladies,twitch-ballock,hound’spiss,openarse,andbum-towel.OwooftheseearthyappellationsmayunwittinglysurviveinEnglishyet.The“maidenhair”inmaidenhairmoss,forinstance,doesothehaironthemaiden’shead.Atallevents,ithadlongbeehatthenaturalsceswouldbeappreciablydignifiedbyadoseofclassicalrenaming,sotherewasacertaindismayindiscthattheself-appointedPrinceofBotanyhadsprinkledhistextswithsuchdesignationsasClitoria,Fornicata,andVulva.
Overtheyearsmanyofthesewerequietlydropped(thoughnotall:theonslipperlimpetstillanswersonformaloccasionstoCrepidulafornicata)andmanyotherrefisintroducedastheneedsofthenaturalscesgrewmorespecialized.Inparticularthesystemwasbolsteredbythegradualintroduofadditionalhierarchies.Genus(pluralgenera)andspecieshadbeenemployedbynaturalistsforoverahundredyearsbeforeLinnaeus,andorder,class,andfamilyintheirbiologicalsensesallcameintouseinthe1750sand1760s.
Butphylumwasn’teduntil1876(bytheGermaHaeckel),andfamilyandorderweretreatedasintergeableuntilearlyiwehtury.Foratimezoologistsusedfamilywherebotanistsplacedorder,totheoccasionalfusionofnearlyeveryone.
1Linnaeushaddividedtheanimalworldintosixcategories:mammals,reptiles,birds,fishes,is,and“vermes,”orworms,foreverythingthatdidn’tfitintothefirstfive.Fromtheoutsetitwasevidentthatputtinglobstersandshrimpintothesamecategoryaswormswasunsatisfactory,andvariousegoriessuchasMollusdCrustaceawerecreated.
Unfortuhesenewclassificationswerenotuniformlyappliedfromnationtonation.Inaoreestablishorder,theBritishin1842proclaimedaofrulescalledtheStridiatheFrenchsawthisashighhanded,andtheSociétéZoologiqueteredwithitsownfligeanwhile,theAmeriOrnithologicalSociety,forobscurereasons,decidedtousethe1758editionofSystemaNaturaeasthebasisforallitsnaming,ratherthanthe1766editionusedelsewhere,whichmeantthatmanyAmeribirdsspenttheeeuryloggedindifferentgenerafromtheiraviancousinsinEurope.
Notuntil1902,atanearlymeetingoftheIionalgressofZoology,didnaturalistsbeginatlasttoshoiritofpromiseandadoptauniversalcode.
Taxonomyisdescribedsometimesasasdsometimesasanart,butreallyit’sabattlegrouodaythereismoredisorderiemthanmostpeoplerealize.Takethecategoryofthephylum,thedivisionthatdescribesthebasicbodyplansofallanisms.
Afewphylaaregenerallywellknown,suchasmollusks(thehomeofclamsandsnails),arthropods(isandcrustas),andchordates(usandallotheranimalswithabaeorprotobae),thoughthingsthenmoveswiftlyinthedireofobscurity.AmoerwemightlistGnathostomulida(marineworms),idaria(jellyfish,medusae,anemones,andcorals),andthedelicatePriapulida(orlittle“penisworms”).Familiarornot,theseareelementaldivisiohereissurprisinglylittleagreementonhohylatherearehttobe.Mostbiologistsfixthetotalataboutthirty,butsomeoptforahelowtwenties,whileEdwardO.WilsoninTheDiversityofLifeputstheasurprisinglyrobusteighty-dependsonwhereyoudecidetomakeyourdivisions—whetheryouarea“lumper”ora“splitter,”astheysayinthebiologicalworld.
Atthemoreworkadaylevelofspecies,thepossibilitiesfordisagreementsareeveer.
WhetheraspeciesofgrassshouldbecalledAegilopsincurva,Aegilopsincurvata,ilopsovatamayterthatwouldstirmanynonbotaniststopassion,butitbeasourceofverylivelyheatintherightquarters.Theproblemisthattherearefivethousandspeciesofgrassandmanyofthemlookawfullyalikeeventopeoplewhoknowgrass.Insequenespecieshavebeenfoundandleasttwentytimes,andtherearehardlyany,itappears,thathaven’tbeenindepelyidentifiedatleasttwice.Thetwo-volumeManualoftheGrassesoftheUatesdevotestwohundredcloselytypesetpagestoutallthesynonymies,asthebiologicalworldreferstoitsientbutquiteonduplications.Andthatisjustfrassesofasingletry.
Todealwithdisagreementsontheglobalstage,abodyknownastheIionalAssociationforPlantTaxonomyarbitratesoionsofpriorityandduplication.At1Toillustrate,humahedomaineucarya,inthekingdomanimalia,inthephylumchordata,inthesubphylumvertebrata,intheclassmammalia,intheorderprimates,inthefamilyhomihegenushomo,inthespeciessapiens.(Thevention,Iminformed,istoitalicizegenusandspeames,butnotthoseofhigherdivisions.)Sometaxonomistsemployfurthersubdivisions:tribe,suborder,infraorder,parvorder,andmore.
intervalsithandsdowndecrees,declaringthatZauseriacalifornica(aonplantinrockgardens)istobeknownhehasEpilobiumumorthatAglaothamniontenuissimummaynardedasspecificwithAglaothamnionbyssoides,butnotwithAglaothamnionpseudobyssoides.Normallythesearesmallmattersoftidyingupthatattractlittlenotice,butwheoubelovedgardenplants,astheysometimesdo,shrieksofeiablyfollow.Ie1980stheonchrysanthemumwasbanished(onapparentlysoundstificiples)fromthegenusofthesamenameandrelegatedtotheparativelydrabandundesirableworldofthegenusDendranthema.
Chrysanthemumbreedersareaproudandnumerouslot,andtheyprotestedtotherealifimprobable-soundingitteeoophyta.(TherearealsoitteesforPteridophyta,Bryophyta,andFungi,amongothers,allreptoaivecalledtheRapporteur-Général;thisistrulyaninstitutiontocherish.)Althoughtherulesofnomenclaturearesupposedtidlyapplied,botanistsarenotindifferenttose,andin1995thedecisionwasreversed.Similaradjudicationshavesavedpetunias,euonymus,andapopularspearyllisfromdemotion,butnotmanyspeciesofgeraniums,whieyearsagoweretransferred,amidhowls,tothegenusPelargonium.ThedisputesareeaininglysurveyedinCharlesElliott’sThePotting-ShedPapers.
Disputesandresofmuchthesametypebefoundinalltheotherrealmsoftheliving,sokeepinganoveralltallyisnotnearlyasstraightforwardamatterasyoumightsuppose.Insequeheratheramazingfactisthatwedon’thavethefaiidea—“otheorderofmagnitude,”inthewordsofEdwardO.Wilson—ofthehingsthatliveonourplaimatesrangefrom3millionto200million.Moreextraordinarystill,acctoareportintheEist,asmuchas97pertoftheworld’splantandanimalspeciesmaystillawaitdiscovery.
Oftheanismsthatwedoknowabout,morethan99in100areonlysketchilydescribed—“astifiame,ahandfulofspesinamuseum,andafesofdescriptioniificjournals”ishowWilsondescribesthestateofourknowledge.InTheDiversityofLife,heestimatedthenumberofknownspeciesofalltypes—plants,is,microbes,algae,everything—at1.4million,butaddedthatthatwasjustaguess.Otherauthoritieshaveputthenumberofknownspeciesslightlyhigher,ataround1.5millionto1.8million,butthereisralregistryofthesethings,soocheumbers.Inshort,theremarkablepositionwefindourselvesinisthatwedon’tactuallyknoeactuallyknow.
Inprincipleyououghttobeabletogotoexpertsineachareaofspecialization,askhoeciesthereareintheirfields,thenaddthetotals.Manypeoplehaveinfaeso.
Theproblemisthatseldomdoanytwoeupwithmatgfigures.Somesourcesputthenumberofknowntypesoffungiat70,000,othersat100,000—nearlyhalfasmanyagain.Youfindfidenta松语文学www.16sy.coM免费小说阅读
TheNaturalHistoryMuseumtainssomeseventymilliosfromeveryrealmoflifeandeveryerofthepla,withanotherhuhousandorsoaddedtothecolleeachyear,butitisreallyonlybehindthesesthatyougetasenseofwhatatreasurehousethisis.Incupboardsandetsandlongroomsfullofclose-packedshelvesarekepttensofthousandsofpickledanimalsinbottles,millionsofispiosquaresofcard,drawersofshinymollusks,bonesofdinosaurs,skullsofearlyhumans,endlessfoldersoflypressedplants.ItisalittlelikewanderingthroughDarwin’sbrain.Thespiritroomaloneholdsfifteenmilesofshelvingtainingjaruponjarofanimalspreservedihylatedspirit.
BackherearespescollectedbyJosephBanksinAustralia,AlexandervonHumboldtinAmazonia,DarwinontheBeaglevoyage,andmuchelsethatiseitherveryrareorhistoricallyimportantorboth.Manypeoplewouldlovetogettheirhandsohings.Afewactuallyhave.In1954themuseumacquiredanoutstandingornithologicalcollefromtheestateofadevotedcolleedRichardMeizhagen,authorofBirdsofArabia,amongotherscholarlyworks.Meizhagenhadbeenafaithfulattehemuseumforyears,ingalmostdailytotakenotesfortheproduofhisbooksandmonographs.
Wheesarrived,thecuratorsexcitedlyjimmiedthemopentoseewhattheyhadbeeandweresurprised,toputitmildly,todiscoverthataverylargenumberofspesborethemuseum’sownlabels.Mr.Meizhagen,ittur,hadbeenhelpinghimselftotheircollesforyears.Italsoexplainedhishabitofwearingalargeovercoatevenduringwarmweather.
Afewyearslateracharmingularinthemollusksdepartment—“quiteadistinguishedgentleman,”Iwastold—wascaughtiingvaluedseashellsintothehollowlegsofhisZimmerframe.
“Idon’tsupposethere’sanythingisomebodysomewheredoesn’tcovet,”
RichardForteysaidwithathoughtfulairashegavemeatourofthebeguilingworldthatisthebehind-the-sespartofthemuseum.Wewahroughafusiomentswherepeoplesatatlargetablesdoingi,iigativethingswitharthropodsandpalmfrondsandboxesofyellowedbones.Everywheretherewasanairofunhurriedthhness,ofpeoplebeingengagedinagigantideavorthatcouldneverbepletedandmustn’tberushed.In1967,Ihadread,themuseumissueditsreportontheJohnMurrayExpedition,anIndianOsurvey,forty-fouryearsaftertheexpeditionhadcluded.ThisisaworldwherethingsmoveattheirownpacludingatinyliftForteyandIsharedwithascholarlylookingelderlymanwithwhomForteychattedgeniallyandfamiliarlyasweproceededupwardsatabouttheratethatsedimentsarelaiddown.
Whenthemaed,Forteysaidtome:“ThatwasaveryniceamedNormanwho’sspentforty-twoyearsstudyingonespeciesofplant,St.John’swort.Heretiredin1989,buthestillesineveryweek.”
“Howdoyouspendforty-twoyearsononespeciesofplant?”Iasked.
“It’sremarkable,isn’tit?”Forteyagreed.Hethoughtforamoment.“He’sverythhapparently.”Theliftdooropeorevealabricked-overopening.Forteylookedfouhat’sverystrange,”hesaid.“ThatusedtobeBotanybackthere.”Hepunchedabuttonforanotherfloor,andwefoundourwayatlengthtoBotanybymeansofbackstaircasesanddiscreettrespassthroughyetmoredepartmentswhereiigatorstoiledlovinglyoveronce-livingobjects.AndsoitwasthatIwasintroducedtoLenEllisandthequietworldofbryophytes—mossestotherestofus.
WhenEmersoicallyhatmossesfavorthenorthsidesoftrees(“Themossupontheforestbark,ole-starwhenthenightwasdark”)hereallymeantlis,forintheeeurymossesandlisweren’tdistinguished.Truemossesaren’tactuallyfussyaboutwheretheygrow,sotheyarenogoodasnaturalpasses.Infact,mossesaren’tactuallymuchgoodforanything.“Perhapsgroupofplantshassofewuses,ercialoreic,asthemosses,”wroteHenryS.ard,perhapsjustatouchsadly,inHowtoKnowtheMossesandLiverworts,publishedin1956andstilltobefoundonmanylibraryshelvesasalmosttheonlyattempttopopularizethesubject.
Theyare,however,prolific.Evenwithlisremoved,bryophytesisabusyrealm,withovertenthousandspeciestaihinsomesevenhundredgeheplumpandstatelyMossFloraofBritainandIrelandbyA.J.E.Smithrunstosevenhundredpages,andBritainandIrelandarebynomeansoutstandinglymossyplaces.“Thetropicsarewhereyoufindthevariety,”LenEllistoldme.Aquiet,spareman,hehasbeenattheNaturalHistoryMuseumfortwenty-sevenyearsandcuratorofthedepartmentsince1990.“YougooutintoaplaceliketheraisofMalaysiaandfindnewvarietieswithrelativeease.Ididthatmyselfnotlongago.Ilookeddownandthereeciesthathadneverbeenrecorded.”
“Sowedon’tknowhoeciesarestilltobediscovered?”
“Oh,no.Noidea.”
Youmightnotthinktherewouldbethatmanypeopleintheworldpreparedtodevotelifetimestothestudyofsomethingsoinescapablylowkey,butinfactmosspeoplehehundredsandtheyfeelverystronglyabouttheirsubject.“Oh,yes,”Ellistoldme,“themeetingsgetverylivelyattimes.”
Iaskedhimforanexampleoftroversy.
“Well,here’soneinflictedonusbyoneofyourtrymen,”hesaid,smilinglightly,andopenedaheftyreferenceworktainingillustrationsofmosseswhosemostnotablecharacteristictotheuninstructedeyewastheirunysimilarityooahat,”hesaid,tappingamoss,“usedtobeonegenus,Drepanocladus.Nowit’sbeenreaothree:Drepanocladus,Wamstorfia,andHamatacoulis.”
“Anddidthatleadtoblows?”Iaskedperhapsatouchhopefully.
“Well,itmadesemadeperfese.Butitmeantalotofreofcollesanditputallthebooksoutofdateforatime,sotherewasabitof,youknow,grumbling.”
Mossesoffermysteriesaswell,hetoldme.Onefamouscase—famoustomosspeopleanyway—involvedaretiringtypecalledHyophilastanfordensis,whichwasdiscoveredonthecampusofStanfordUyinCaliforniaandlateralsofoundgrowingbesideapathinwall,ohwesttipofEngland,buthasneverbeenenteredanywhereiween.Howitcametoexistintwosuectedlocationsisanybody’sguess.“It’snowknownasHennediellastanfordensis,”Ellissaid.“Anotherrevision.”
Wehoughtfully.
Whenanewmossisfounditmustbeparedwithallothermossestomakesurethatithasn’tbeenrecordedalready.Thenaformaldescriptionmustbewrittenandillustrationspreparedandtheresultpublishedinarespectablejournal.Thewholeprocessseldomtakeslessthansixmonths.Thetwehturywasnotagreatageformosstaxonomy.Muchofthetury’sworkwasdevotedtountanglingthefusionsandduplicatiobehindbytheeeury.
Thatwasthegoldenageofmosscolleg.(YoumayrecallthatCharlesLyell’sfatherwasagreatmossman.)OlynamedEnglishman,GeeHunt,huntedBritishmossessoassiduouslythatheprobablytributedtotheextinofseveralspecies.ButitisthankstosucheffortsthatLenEllis’scolleisoheworld’smostprehensive.All780,000ofhisspesarepressedintefoldedsheetsofheavypaper,someveryoldandcoveredwithspideryVictorianscript.Some,forallweknew,mighthavebeeninthehandofRobertBrown,thegreatVictorianbotanist,unveilerofBrownianmotionandthenucleusofcells,whofoundedandranthemuseum’sbotamentforitsfirstthirty-oneyearsuntilhisdeathin1858.AllthespesarekeptinlustrousoldmahoganyetssostrikinglyfiIremarkeduponthem.
“Oh,thosewereSirJosephBanks’s,fromhishouseinSohoSquare,”Ellissaidcasually,asifidentifyipurchasefromIkea.“HehadthembuilttoholdhisspesfromtheEndeavourvoyage.”Heregardedtheetsthoughtfully,asifforthefirsttimeinalongwhile.“Idon’tknoeendedupwiththeminbryology,”headded.
Thiswasanamazingdisclosure.JosephBankswasEngland’sgreatestbotanist,andtheEndeavourvoyage—thatistheoneonwhichCaptainCookchartedthe1769transitofVenusandclaimedAustraliaforthe,amongratheralotelse—wasthegreatestbotanicalexpeditioninhistory.Bankspaid￡10,000,about</strong>1millionintoday’smohimselfandapartyofhers—anaturalist,asecretary,threeartists,andfourservants—ohree-yearadventurearoundthewoodnessknowswhatthebluffCaptainadeofsuchavelvetyandpamperedassemblage,butheseemstohavelikedBankswellenoughandcouldnotbutadmirehistalentsinbotany—afeelingsharedbyposterity.
Neverbeforeorsincehasabotanicalpartyenjoyedgreatertriumphs.Partlyitwasbecausethevoyagetookinsomanyneworlittle-knownplaces—TierradelFuego,Tahiti,NewZealand,Australia,NewGuinea—butmostlyitwasbecauseBankswassuastuteandiivecollector.EvenwhenuogoashoreatRiodeJaneirobecauseofaquarantiedthroughabaleoffoddersentfortheship’slivestodmadenewdiscoveries.
Nothing,itseems,escapedhisnotice.Altogetherhebroughtbackthirtythousandplantspes,includingfourteenhuseenbefore—enoughtoincreasebyaboutaquarterthenumberofknownplantsintheworld.
ButBanks’sgrandcachewasonlypartofthetotalhaulinwhatwasanalmostabsurdlyacquisitiveage.Plantcollegieeurybecameakindofiionalmania.Gloryahalikeawaitedthosewhocouldfindnewspecies,andbotanistsandadventurerswenttothemostincrediblelengthstosatisfytheworld’scravingforhorticulturaly.ThomasNuttall,themanwhohewisteriaafterCasparWistar,cametoAmericaasanuneducatedpridiscoveredapassionforplantsandwalkedhalfwayacrossthetryandbackagain,colleghundredsofgrowingthingsneverseenbefore.
JohnFraser,forwhomisheFraserfir,spentyearsinthewildernesscollegonbehalfofCatheriheGreatandemergedatlengthtofindthatRussiahadanewczarwhothoughthewasmadandrefusedtohonorhistract.FrasertookeverythingtoChelsea,whereheopenedanurseryandmadeahandsomelivingsellingrhododendrons,azaleas,magnolias,Virginiacreepers,asters,andotherialexoticatoadelightedEnglishgentry.
Hugesumscouldbemadewiththerightfinds.JohnLyon,anamateurbotanist,spenttwohardanddangerousyearscollegspes,butclearedalmost</strong>200,000intoday’smoneyforhisefforts.Many,however,justdiditfortheloveofbotany.NuttallgavemostofwhathefoundtotheLiverpoolBotanicGardeuallyhebecamedirectorofHarvard’sBotanicGardenandauthoroftheencyclopedieraofNorthAmeriPlants(whiotonlywrotebutalselytypeset).
Andthatwasjustplants.Therewasalsoallthefaunaofthenewworlds—kangaroos,kiwis,ras,bobcats,mosquitoes,andothercuriousformsbeyondimagining.Thevolumeoflifeohwasseeminglyinfinite,asJonathanSwiftnotedinsomefamouslines:
So,naturalistsobserve,afleaHathsmallerfleasthatonhimprey;Andthesehavesmallerstilltobite’em;Andsoproceedadinfinitum.
Allthisnewinformatioobefiled,ordered,andparedasknown.
Theworldwasdesperateforaworkablesystemofclassification.FortuherewasamaninSwedenwhostoodreadytoprovideit.
HisnamewasCarlLinné(laterged,withpermission,tothemorearistocratiLinné),butheisrememberednowbytheLatinizedformCarolusLinnaeus.Hewasbornin1707inthevillageofR?shultinsouthernSweden,thesonofapoorbutambitiousLutherancurate,andwassuchasluggishstudentthathisexasperatedfatherapprenticedhim(or,bysomeats,nearlyapprenticedhim)toacobbler.Appalledattheprospectofspendingalifetimebangingtatoleather,youngLinnébeggedforanotherce,whichwasgranted,andhehereafterwaveredfromacademicdistin.HestudiedmedieinSwedenandHolland,thoughhispassionbecamethenaturalworld.Intheearly1730s,stillinhistwenties,hebegantoproducecataloguesoftheworld’splantandanimalspecies,usingasystemofhisowndevising,andgraduallyhisfamegrew.
Rarelyhasamanbeenmorefortablewithhisowness.Hespentmuchofhisleisuretimepenninglongandflatteringportraitsofhimself,declaringthattherehadnever“beeerbotanistorzoologist,”andthathissystemofclassificationwas“thegreatestachievementintherealmofsce.”ModestlyhesuggestedthathisgravestoneshouldbeartheinscriptionPrincepsBotani,“PrinceofBotanists.”Itwasneverwisetoquestionhisgenerousself-assessments.Thosewhodidsottofindtheyhadweedserthem.
Linnaeus’sotherstrikingqualitywasanabiding—attimes,onemightsay,afeverish—preoccupationwithsex.Hearticularlystruckbythesimilaritybetweeainbivalvesandthefemalepudenda.Tothepartsofonespeciesofclamhegavethenamesvulva,labia,pubes,anus,andhymen.Hegroupedplantsbythenatureoftheirreproductiveansandehemwithainglyanthropomorphicamorousness.Hisdescriptionsofflowersandtheirbehaviorarefullofrefereo“promiscuousintercourse,”“barrenes,”
and“thebridalbed.”Inspriei-quotedpassage:
Loveeseventotheplants.Malesandfemales...holdtheirnuptials...
showingbytheirsexualanswhicharemales,whichfemales.Theflowers’
leavesserveasabridalbed,whichtheCreatorhassogloriouslyarranged,adorhsuoblebedcurtains,andperfumedwithsomanysoftststhatthebridegroomwithhisbridemighttherecelebratetheirnuptialswithsomuchthegreatersolemnity.Whenthebedhasthusbeenmadeready,thenisthetimeforthebridegroomtoembracehisbelovedbrideandsurrenderhimselftoher.
HenamedonegenusofplantsClitoria.Notsurprisingly,manypeoplethoughthimstrange.
Buthissystemofclassificationwasirresistible.BeforeLinnaeus,plantsweregivehatwereexpansivelydescriptive.TheongroundcherrywascalledPhysalisamnoramosissimeramisangulosisglabrisfoliisdeis.LinnaeusloppeditbacktoPhysalisangulata,whiameitstilluses.Theplantworldwasequallydisorderedbyinsistening.AbotanistcouldnotbesureifRosasylvestrisalbacumrubore,folioglabrowasthesameplantthatotherscalledRosasylvestrisinodoraseua.LinnaeussolvedthepuzzlementbycallingitsimplyRosaa.Tomaketheseexcisionsusefulandagreeabletoallrequiredmuchmorethansimplybeingdecisive.Itrequiredaninstinct—agenius,infact—forspottingthesalientqualitiesofaspecies.
TheLinnaeansystemissowellestablishedthatwehardlyimagineaive,butbeforeLinnaeus,systemsofclassificatioenhighlywhimsical.Animalsmightbecategorizedbywhethertheywerewildordomesticated,terrestrialoraquatic,largeorsmall,evehertheywerethoughthandsomeandnobleorofnosequence.Buffedhisanimalsbytheirutilitytoman.Anatomicalsiderationsbarelycameintoit.Linnaeusmadeithislife’sworktorectifythisdeficybyclassifyingallthatwasaliveacctoitsphysicalattributes.Taxonomy—whichistosaythesceofclassification—hasneverlookedback.
Italltooktime,ofcourse.ThefirsteditionofhisgreatSystemaNaturaein1735wasjustfourteenpageslong.ButitgrewailbythetwelftheditiothatLinnaeuswouldlivetosee—itextehreevolumesand2,300pages.Intheendhenamedorrecordedsome13,000speciesofplantandanimal.Otherworksweremoreprehensive—JohnRay’sthree-volumeHisteneralisPlantaruminEngland,pletedageionearlier,coveredhan18,625speciesofplantsalowhatLinnaeushadthatnooneelsecouldtouchweresistency,order,simplicity,andtimelihoughhisworkdatesfromthe1730s,itdidn’tbeewidelyknowninEnglanduntilthe1760s,justiomakeLinnaeusakindoffatherfiguretoBritishnaturalists.Nowherewashissystemembracedwithgreaterenthusiasm(whichiswhy,forohing,theLinnaeanSocietyhasitshomeinLondonandnotSto).
Linnaeuswasnotflawless.Hemaderoomformythicalbeastsand“monstroushumans”
whosedescriptionshegulliblyacceptedfromseamenandinativetravelers.Amongthesewereawildman,Homoferus,whowalkedonallfoursandhadmasteredtheartofspeedHomocaudatus,“manwithatail.”Butthenitwas,asweshouldnet,analtogethermorecredulousage.EventhegreatJosephBankstookakeenandbelievingiinaseriesofreportedsightingsofmermaidsofftheScottishcoastattheendoftheeighteeury.Forthemostpart,however,Linnaeus’slapseswereoffsetbysoundandoftenbrillianttaxonomy.Amongotheraplishments,hesawthatwhalesbelohidotheronterrestrialanimalsintheorderQuadrupedia(latergedtoMammalia),whioonehaddonebefore.
Inthebeginning,Linnaeusintendedonlytogiveeachplantagenusnameandanumber—volvulus1,volvulus2,andsoon—butsoonrealizedthatthatwasunsatisfactoryandhitonthebinomialarrahatremainsattheheartofthesystemtothisday.Theiiinallywastousethebinomialsystemforeverything—rocks,minerals,diseases,winds,whateverexistedinnature.Noteveryoneembracedthesystemwarmly.Manyweredisturbedbyitsteowardindelicacy,whichwasslightlyironicasbeforeLiheesofmanyplantsandanimalshadbeeilyvulgar.Thedandelionwaslongpopularlyknownasthe“pissabed”becauseofitssupposeddiureticproperties,andothernamesineverydayuseincludedmare’sfart,nakedladies,twitch-ballock,hound’spiss,openarse,andbum-towel.OwooftheseearthyappellationsmayunwittinglysurviveinEnglishyet.The“maidenhair”inmaidenhairmoss,forinstance,doesothehaironthemaiden’shead.Atallevents,ithadlongbeehatthenaturalsceswouldbeappreciablydignifiedbyadoseofclassicalrenaming,sotherewasacertaindismayindiscthattheself-appointedPrinceofBotanyhadsprinkledhistextswithsuchdesignationsasClitoria,Fornicata,andVulva.
Overtheyearsmanyofthesewerequietlydropped(thoughnotall:theonslipperlimpetstillanswersonformaloccasionstoCrepidulafornicata)andmanyotherrefisintroducedastheneedsofthenaturalscesgrewmorespecialized.Inparticularthesystemwasbolsteredbythegradualintroduofadditionalhierarchies.Genus(pluralgenera)andspecieshadbeenemployedbynaturalistsforoverahundredyearsbeforeLinnaeus,andorder,class,andfamilyintheirbiologicalsensesallcameintouseinthe1750sand1760s.
Butphylumwasn’teduntil1876(bytheGermaHaeckel),andfamilyandorderweretreatedasintergeableuntilearlyiwehtury.Foratimezoologistsusedfamilywherebotanistsplacedorder,totheoccasionalfusionofnearlyeveryone.
1Linnaeushaddividedtheanimalworldintosixcategories:mammals,reptiles,birds,fishes,is,and“vermes,”orworms,foreverythingthatdidn’tfitintothefirstfive.Fromtheoutsetitwasevidentthatputtinglobstersandshrimpintothesamecategoryaswormswasunsatisfactory,andvariousegoriessuchasMollusdCrustaceawerecreated.
Unfortuhesenewclassificationswerenotuniformlyappliedfromnationtonation.Inaoreestablishorder,theBritishin1842proclaimedaofrulescalledtheStridiatheFrenchsawthisashighhanded,andtheSociétéZoologiqueteredwithitsownfligeanwhile,theAmeriOrnithologicalSociety,forobscurereasons,decidedtousethe1758editionofSystemaNaturaeasthebasisforallitsnaming,ratherthanthe1766editionusedelsewhere,whichmeantthatmanyAmeribirdsspenttheeeuryloggedindifferentgenerafromtheiraviancousinsinEurope.
Notuntil1902,atanearlymeetingoftheIionalgressofZoology,didnaturalistsbeginatlasttoshoiritofpromiseandadoptauniversalcode.
Taxonomyisdescribedsometimesasasdsometimesasanart,butreallyit’sabattlegrouodaythereismoredisorderiemthanmostpeoplerealize.Takethecategoryofthephylum,thedivisionthatdescribesthebasicbodyplansofallanisms.
Afewphylaaregenerallywellknown,suchasmollusks(thehomeofclamsandsnails),arthropods(isandcrustas),andchordates(usandallotheranimalswithabaeorprotobae),thoughthingsthenmoveswiftlyinthedireofobscurity.AmoerwemightlistGnathostomulida(marineworms),idaria(jellyfish,medusae,anemones,andcorals),andthedelicatePriapulida(orlittle“penisworms”).Familiarornot,theseareelementaldivisiohereissurprisinglylittleagreementonhohylatherearehttobe.Mostbiologistsfixthetotalataboutthirty,butsomeoptforahelowtwenties,whileEdwardO.WilsoninTheDiversityofLifeputstheasurprisinglyrobusteighty-dependsonwhereyoudecidetomakeyourdivisions—whetheryouarea“lumper”ora“splitter,”astheysayinthebiologicalworld.
Atthemoreworkadaylevelofspecies,thepossibilitiesfordisagreementsareeveer.
WhetheraspeciesofgrassshouldbecalledAegilopsincurva,Aegilopsincurvata,ilopsovatamayterthatwouldstirmanynonbotaniststopassion,butitbeasourceofverylivelyheatintherightquarters.Theproblemisthattherearefivethousandspeciesofgrassandmanyofthemlookawfullyalikeeventopeoplewhoknowgrass.Insequenespecieshavebeenfoundandleasttwentytimes,andtherearehardlyany,itappears,thathaven’tbeenindepelyidentifiedatleasttwice.Thetwo-volumeManualoftheGrassesoftheUatesdevotestwohundredcloselytypesetpagestoutallthesynonymies,asthebiologicalworldreferstoitsientbutquiteonduplications.Andthatisjustfrassesofasingletry.
Todealwithdisagreementsontheglobalstage,abodyknownastheIionalAssociationforPlantTaxonomyarbitratesoionsofpriorityandduplication.At1Toillustrate,humahedomaineucarya,inthekingdomanimalia,inthephylumchordata,inthesubphylumvertebrata,intheclassmammalia,intheorderprimates,inthefamilyhomihegenushomo,inthespeciessapiens.(Thevention,Iminformed,istoitalicizegenusandspeames,butnotthoseofhigherdivisions.)Sometaxonomistsemployfurthersubdivisions:tribe,suborder,infraorder,parvorder,andmore.
intervalsithandsdowndecrees,declaringthatZauseriacalifornica(aonplantinrockgardens)istobeknownhehasEpilobiumumorthatAglaothamniontenuissimummaynardedasspecificwithAglaothamnionbyssoides,butnotwithAglaothamnionpseudobyssoides.Normallythesearesmallmattersoftidyingupthatattractlittlenotice,butwheoubelovedgardenplants,astheysometimesdo,shrieksofeiablyfollow.Ie1980stheonchrysanthemumwasbanished(onapparentlysoundstificiples)fromthegenusofthesamenameandrelegatedtotheparativelydrabandundesirableworldofthegenusDendranthema.
Chrysanthemumbreedersareaproudandnumerouslot,andtheyprotestedtotherealifimprobable-soundingitteeoophyta.(TherearealsoitteesforPteridophyta,Bryophyta,andFungi,amongothers,allreptoaivecalledtheRapporteur-Général;thisistrulyaninstitutiontocherish.)Althoughtherulesofnomenclaturearesupposedtidlyapplied,botanistsarenotindifferenttose,andin1995thedecisionwasreversed.Similaradjudicationshavesavedpetunias,euonymus,andapopularspearyllisfromdemotion,butnotmanyspeciesofgeraniums,whieyearsagoweretransferred,amidhowls,tothegenusPelargonium.ThedisputesareeaininglysurveyedinCharlesElliott’sThePotting-ShedPapers.
Disputesandresofmuchthesametypebefoundinalltheotherrealmsoftheliving,sokeepinganoveralltallyisnotnearlyasstraightforwardamatterasyoumightsuppose.Insequeheratheramazingfactisthatwedon’thavethefaiidea—“otheorderofmagnitude,”inthewordsofEdwardO.Wilson—ofthehingsthatliveonourplaimatesrangefrom3millionto200million.Moreextraordinarystill,acctoareportintheEist,asmuchas97pertoftheworld’splantandanimalspeciesmaystillawaitdiscovery.
Oftheanismsthatwedoknowabout,morethan99in100areonlysketchilydescribed—“astifiame,ahandfulofspesinamuseum,andafesofdescriptioniificjournals”ishowWilsondescribesthestateofourknowledge.InTheDiversityofLife,heestimatedthenumberofknownspeciesofalltypes—plants,is,microbes,algae,everything—at1.4million,butaddedthatthatwasjustaguess.Otherauthoritieshaveputthenumberofknownspeciesslightlyhigher,ataround1.5millionto1.8million,butthereisralregistryofthesethings,soocheumbers.Inshort,theremarkablepositionwefindourselvesinisthatwedon’tactuallyknoeactuallyknow.
Inprincipleyououghttobeabletogotoexpertsineachareaofspecialization,askhoeciesthereareintheirfields,thenaddthetotals.Manypeoplehaveinfaeso.
Theproblemisthatseldomdoanytwoeupwithmatgfigures.Somesourcesputthenumberofknowntypesoffungiat70,000,othersat100,000—nearlyhalfasmanyagain.Youfindfidenta松语文学www.16sy.coM免费小说阅读
推荐自己的新书《天命讨债人》齐天大魔猴
桀骜齐天圣，铮铮大魔猴
第817章 四公子当真与众不同？清穿后每天被迫撩
【欢脱独宠，沙雕撩夫日
新书《谜城》开启神峰
一次偶然， 他踏足修
第270章 酒吧偶遇网游之影子大师
我，在黑夜中行走 我
007儿女成群婚城难入
十八岁的她，一心想用高
第四百一十六章 邀请剑神之剑弑乾坤
《剑神之剑弑乾坤》是一
声明：本站所收录之:A Short History of Nearly Everything- 23 THE RICHNESS OF BEING、言情小说、玄幻、网游小说、及短篇作品、均为本站作者及网友上传。
并不代表本站立场!本站亦无法严格审:A Short History of Nearly Everything最新章节其版权归属。如您对A Short History of Nearly EverythingTXT下载持有版权方面的异议，请联系本站客服。我们将于72小时内处理。
Copyright (C) 2019 All Rights Reserved 版权所有：松语文学
并不代表本站立场!本站亦无法严格审:A Short History of Nearly Everything最新章节其版权归属。如您对A Short History of Nearly EverythingTXT下载持有版权方面的异议，请联系本站客服。我们将于72小时内处理。
Copyright (C) 2019 All Rights Reserved 版权所有：松语文学