28 THE MYSTERIOUS BIPED
JUSTBEFORECHRISTMAS1887,ayoungDutchdoctorwithanun-Dutame,MarieEugèneFran?oisThomasDubois,arrivedinSumatra,ichEastIndies,withtheiionoffindingtheearliesthumanremaih.
1Severalthingswereextraordinaryaboutthis.Tobeginwith,noonehadevergonelookingforahumanbonesbefore.Everythingthathadbeenfoundtothispointhadbeenfoundactally,andnothinginDubois’sbackgroundsuggestedthathewastheidealdidatetomaketheprocessiional.Hewasananatomistbytrainingwithnobackgroundiology.NorwasthereanyspecialreasontosupposethattheEastIndieswouldholdearlyhumanremains.Logicdictatedthatifapeopleweretobefoundatall,itwouldbeonalargeandlong-populatedlandmass,notintheparativefastnessofanarchipelago.
DuboiswasdriventotheEastIndiesonnothingstrohanahunch,theavailabilityofemployment,andthekhatSumatrawasfullofcaves,theenviroinwhichmostoftheimportanthominidfossilshadsofarbeenfound.Whatismostextraordinaryinallthis—nearlymiraculous,really—isthathefoundwhathewaslookingfor.
AtthetimeDuboisceivedhisplantosearissinglink,thehumanfossilrecordsistedofverylittle:fiveinpleteNeaalskeletons,oialjawboneofuainprovenandahalf-dozenice-agehumalyfoundbyrailwayworkersinacaveatacliffcalledagnonnearLesEyzies,FraheNeaalspes,thebestpreservedwassittingunremarkedonashelfinLondon.IthadbeenfoundbyworkersblastingroaquarryinGibraltarin1848,soitspreservationwasawonder,butunfortunatelyappreciatedwhatitwas.AfterbeingbrieflydescribedatameetingoftheGibraltarStificSociety,ithadbeeotheHunterianMuseuminLondoremainedundisturbedbutforanoccasionallightdustingforoverhalfatury.Thefirstformaldescriptionofitwasn’twrittenuntil1907,andthenbyageologistnamedWilliamSollas“withonlyapassingpetenanatomy.”
SoihenameaforthediscoveryofthefirstearlyhumaotheNeanderValleyinGermany—notunfittingly,asithappens,forbyunyeanderinGreekmeans“newman.”Therein1856workmenatanotherquarry,inaclifffaceoverlookingtheDüsselRiver,foundsomecurious-lookingbones,whichtheypassedtoalocalschoolteacher,knowinghehadainallthingsnatural.Tohisgreatcredittheteacher,JohannKarlFuhlrott,sawthathehadsomeypeofhuman,thoughquitewhatitwas,andhowspecial,wouldbemattersofdisputeforsometime.
ManypeoplerefusedtoacceptthattheNeaalboneswereaall.AugustMayer,aprofessorattheUyofBonnandamanofinfluensistedthatthebohoughDutch,DuboiswasfromEijsden,atownbtheFrench-speakingpartofBelgium.
merelythoseofaMongolianCossacksoldierwhohadbeenwoundedwhilefightinginGermanyin1814andhadcrawledintothecavetodie.Hearingofthis,T.H.HuxleyinEnglanddrilyobservedhowremarkableitwasthatthesoldier,thoughmortallywounded,hadclimbedsixtyfeetupacliff,divestedhimselfofhisclothingandpersonaleffects,sealedthecaveopening,andburiedhimselfuwofeetofsoil.Ahropologist,puzzliheNeaal’sheavybre,suggestedthatitwastheresultoflong-termfrowningarisingfromapoorlyhealedforearmfracture.(Intheireagerorejecttheideaofearlierhumans,authoritieswereoftenwillingtoembracethemostsingularpossibilities.AtaboutthetimethatDuboiswassettingoutforSumatra,askeletonfoundinPérigueuxwasfidentlydeclaredtobethatofanEskimo.QuitewhatanaEskimowasdoinginsouthwestFrancewasneverfortablyexplaiwasactuallyanearlyagnon.)ItwasagainstthisbackgroundthatDuboisbeganhissearchforahumanbones.Hedidnodigginghimself,butinsteadusedfiftyvictslentbytheDutchauthorities.ForayeartheyworkedonSumatra,thentransferredtoJava.Andtherein1891,Dubois—orratherhisteam,forDuboishimselfseldomvisitedthesites—fouionofahumaniumnowknownastheTrinilskullcap.Thoughonlypartofaskull,itshowedthattheownerhadhaddistinonhumauresbutamuchlargerbrainthananyape.DuboiscalleditAnthropithecuserectus(latergedforteicalreasonstoPithethropuserectus)anddeclareditthemissingliesandhumans.Itquicklybecamepopularizedas“JavaMan.”TodayweknowitasHomoerectus.
TheyearDubois’sworkersfoundavirtuallypletethighbolookedsurprisinglymodern.Infact,manyanthropologiststhinkitismodern,andhasnothingtodowithJavaMan.IfitisausboisunlikeanyotherfoundsinohelessDuboisusedthethighboodeduce—correctly,asittur—thatPithethropuswalkedupright.Healsoproduced,withnothingbutascrapofiumah,amodelofthepleteskull,whichalsoprovedunilyaccurate.
In1895,DuboisreturoEurope,expegatriumphalreception.Infact,hemetnearlytheoppositereaoststistsdislikedbothhisclusionsandthearrogantmannerinwhichhepresehem.Theskullcap,theysaid,wasthatofanape,probablyagibbon,andnotofanyearlyhuman.Hopingtobolsterhiscase,in1897DuboisalloectedanatomistfromtheUyofStrasbustavSchwalbe,tomakeacastoftheskullcap.
ToDubois’sdismay,SchwalbethereuponproducedamonographthatreceivedfarmoresympatheticattentionthananythingDuboishadwrittenandfollowedwithalecturetourinwhichhewascelebratednearlyaswarmlyasifhehadduguptheskullhimself.Appalledatered,DuboiswithdrewintoanundistinguishedpositionasaprofesseologyattheUyofAmsterdamandforthewodecadesrefusedtoletanyoneexaminehispreciousfossilsagain.Hediedin1940anunhappyman.
Meanwhile,andhalfaworldaway,inlate1924RaymondDart,theAustralian-bornheadofanatomyattheUyoftheWitwatersrandinJohannesburg,wassentasmallbutremarkablypleteskullofachild,withanintactface,alowerjaw,andwhatisknownasanendocast—anaturalcastofthebrain—fromalimestonequarryontheedgeoftheKalahariDesertatadustyspotcalledTaung.DartcouldseeatotheTaungskullwasnotofaHomoerectuslikeDubois’sJavaMan,butfromanearlier,moreapelikecreature.HeplaceditsageattwomillionyearsanddubbeditAustralopithecusafrius,or“southernapemanofAfrica.”ItoNature,DartcalledtheTaungremains“amazinglyhuman”andsuggestedtheneedforairelynewfamily,Homosimiadae(“theman-apes”),toaodatethefind.
TheauthoritieswereevenlessfavorablydisposedtoDartthantheyhadbeentoDubois.
Nearlyeverythingabouthistheory—indeed,nearlyeverythingaboutDart,itappears—ahem.FirsthehadprovedhimselflamentablypresumptuousbydugtheanalysishimselfratherthancallingonthehelpofmoreworldlyexpertsinEurope.Evenhischosenname,Australopithecus,showedalackofscholarlyapplication,biningasitdidGreekandLatinroots.Aboveall,hisclusiohefaceofacceptedwisdom.
Humansawasagreed,hadsplitapartatleastfifteenmillionyearsagoinAsia.IfhumanshadariseninAfrica,why,thatwouldmakeusNegroid,foodnesssake.Itwasratherasifsomeonewtodayweretoannouhehadfoundthearalbonesofhumansin,say,Missouri.Itjustdidn’tfitasknown.
Dart’ssolesupporterofnotewasRobertBroom,aScottish-bornphysiandpaleontologistofsiderableintelledcherishablyetriature.ItwasBroom’shabit,forinstaodohisfieldworknakedwheherwaswarm,whichwasoften.
Hewasalsoknownfordugdubiousanatomicalexperimentsonhispoorerandmoretractablepatients.Wheientsdied,whichwasalsooften,hewouldsometimesburytheirbodiesinhisbackgardentodigupforstudylater.
Broomwasanaplishedpaleontologist,andsincehewasalsoresidentinSouthAfricahewasabletoexamiaungskullatfirsthand.HecouldseeatoitortantasDartsupposedandspokeoutvigorouslyonDart’sbehalf,buttonoeffect.ForthefiftyyearsthereceivedwisdomwasthattheTaungchildeandnothingmore.Mosttextbooksdidn’teveionit.Dartspentfiveyearswupamonograph,butcouldfindopublishit.Eventuallyhegaveupthequesttopublishaltogether(thoughhedidtiingforfossils).Foryears,theskull—tnizedasohesupremetreasuresofanthropology—satasapaperweightonacolleague’sdesk.
AtthetimeDartmadehisannouin1924,onlyfourcategoriesofahominidwereknown—Homoheidelbergensis,Homorhodesiensis,Neaals,andDubois’sJavaMan—butallthatwasabouttogeinaverybigway.
First,ina,agiftedadianamateurnamedDavidsonBlackbegantopokearoundataplace,DragonBoneHill,thatwaslocallyfamousasahuntinggroundforoldbones.
Unfortunately,ratherthanpreservingthebonesforstudy,theesegrouomakemedies.WelyguesshoricelessHomoerectusbonesendedupasasortofeseequivalentofbicarbonateofsoda.ThesitehadbeenmuudedbythetimeBlackarrived,buthefoundasinglefossilizedmolarandonthebasisofthataloebrilliantlyannouhediscoveryofSinanthropuspekinensis,whichquicklybecameknoekingMan.
AtBlack’surging,moredeterminedexcavationswereuakenandmanyotherbonesfound.UnfortunatelyallwerelostthedayaftertheJapaaPearlHarborin1941whenatiofU.S.Mariryingtospiritthebones(andthemselves)outofthetry,wasinterceptedbytheJapaneseandimprisoned.SeeingthattheircratesheldnothingbutboheJapanesesoldiersleftthemattheroadside.Itwasthelastthatwaseverseenofthem.
Inthemeantime,baDubois’soldturfofJava,ateamledbyRalphvonKoenigswaldhadfoundanroupofearlyhumans,whichbecameknownastheSoloPeoplefromthesiteoftheirdiscoveryontheSoloRiveratNgandong.Koenigswald’sdiscoveriesmighthavebeenmoreimpressivestillbutforatacticalerrorthatwasrealizedtoolate.Hehadofferedlocalstesforeverypieinidboheycouldeupwith,thendiscoveredtohishorrorthattheyhadbeehusiasticallysmashinglargepietosmalloomaximizetheirine.
Inthefollowingyearsasmoreboneswerefoundaifiedtherecameafloodofnewnames—Homnasis,Australopithecustransvaalensis,Paranthropuscrassidens,Zinjanthropusboisei,andscoresofothers,nearlyallinvolvingaypeaswellasanewspecies.Bythe1950s,thenumberofnamedhominidtypeshadrisentofortablyoverahuoaddtothefusion,individualformsoftebyasuccessionofdifferentnamesaspaleoanthropologistsrefined,reworked,andsquabbledoverclassifications.SoloPeoplewereknownvariouslyasHomosoloensis,Heniusasiaticus,Homoneahalensissoloensis,Homosapienssoloensis,Homoerectuserectus,and,finally,plainHomoerectus.
Inaointrodueorder,in1960F.ClarkHowelloftheUyofChicago,followingthesuggestioMayrandothersthepreviousdecade,proposedcuttingthenumberofgeojusttwo—AustralopithedHomo—andrationalizingmanyofthespecies.TheJavaandPekihbecameHomoerectus.Foratimeorderprevailedintheworldofthehominids.
2Itdidn’tlast.
Afteraboutadeparativecalm,paleoanthropologyembarkedonanotherperiodofsrolificdiscovery,whichhasn’tabatedyet.The1960sproduohabilis,thoughtbysometobethemissingliesandhumans,butthoughtbyothersnottobeaseparatespeciesatall.Thencame(amongmanyothers)Haster,Homolouisleakeyi,Homorudolfensis,Homomicrous,andHomoantecessor,aswellasaraftofaustralopithees:A.afarensis,A.praegens,A.ramidus,A.walkeri,A.anamensis,andstillothers.Altogether,sometwentytypesofhominidarereizedieraturetoday.
Unfortunately,almostnotwoexpertsreizethesametwenty.
SometioobservethetwohominidgenerasuggestedbyHowellin1960,butothersplaeoftheaustralopitheesinaseparategenuscalledParanthropus,andstillothersaddanearliergroupcalledArdipithecus.SomeputpraegensintoAustralopithedsomeintoanewclassification,Homoantiquus,butmostdnizepraegensasaseparatespeciesatall.Thereisralauthoritythatrulesohings.Theonlywayanamebeesacceptedisbysensus,andthereisoftenverylittleofthat.
Abigpartoftheproblem,paradoxically,isasheofevidence.Sihedawnoftime,severalbillionhuman(orhumanlike)beingshavelived,eatributingalittlegeicvariabilitytothetotalhumanstock.Outofthisvasthewholeofouruandingofhumaoryisbasedontheremains,oftenexceedinglyfragmentary,ofperhapsfivethousandindividuals.“Youcouldfititallintothebackofapickuptruckifyoudidn’tmind2HumainthelamelyHomimdae.Itsmembers,traditionallycalledhominids,includeaures(includiines)thataremorecloselyrelatedtousthantoanysurvivingchimpaheapes,meanwhile,arelumpedtogetherinafamilycalledPongidae.Manyauthoritiesbelievethatchimps,gorillas,andutansshouldalsobeincludedinthisfamily,withhumansandchimpsinasubfamilycalledHomininae.
Theupshotisthatthecreaturestraditionallycalledhominidsbee,uhisarra,hominins.(Leakeyandothersinsistonthatdesignation.)Homiheheauesunerfamilywhicludesus.
howmubledeverythingup,”IanTattersall,thebeardedandfriendlycuratorofanthropologyattheAmeriMuseumofNaturalHistoryinNewYork,repliedwhenIaskedhimthesizeofthetotalworldarchiveofhominidandearlyhumanbones.
Theshewouldn’tbesobadifthebonesweredistributedevenlythroughtimeandspace,butofcoursetheyarenot.Theyappearrandomly,oftenitantalizingfashion.
HomoerectuswalkedtheEarthforwelloveramillionyearsandinhabitedterritoryfromtheAtlanticedgeofEuropetothePacificsideofa,yetifyhtbacktolifeeveryHomoerectusindividualwhoseexistencewevouchfor,theywouldn’tfillaschoolbus.
Homohabilissistsofevenless:justtwopartialskeletonsandanumberofisolatedlimbbones.Somethingasshort-livedasourowncivilizationwouldalmostcertainlynotbeknownfromthefossilrecordatall.
“InEurope,”Tattersalloffersbywayofillustration,“you’vegothominidskullsinGeiadatedtoabout1.7millionyearsago,butthenyouhaveagapofalmostamillionyearsbeforetheremainsturnupinSpain,rightohersideoftheti,andthenyou’vegotanother300,000-yeargapbeforeyougetaHomoheidelbergensisinGermany—andhemlooksterriblymuchlikeanyoftheothers.”Hesmiled.“It’sfromthesekindsmentarypiecesthatyou’retryingtoworkoutthehistoriesofentirespecies.It’squiteatallorder.Wereallyhaveverylittleideaoftherelationshipsbetweenmanyaspecies—whichledtousandwhichwereevolutionarydeadends.Someprobablydon’tdeservetardedasseparatespeciesatall.”
Itisthepatessoftherecordthatmakeseaewfindlooksosuddenanddistinalltheothers.Ifwehadtensofthousandsofskeletonsdistributedatregularintervalsthroughthehistoricalrecord,therewouldbeappreciablymreesofshading.Wholenewspeciesdon’temergeinstantaneously,asthefossilreplies,butgraduallyoutofother,existingspecies.Theclobacktoapointofdivergehecloserthesimilaritiesare,sothatitbeesexceedinglydifficult,andsometimesimpossible,todistinguishalateHomoerectusfromanearlyHomosapiens,siislikelytobebothaher.Similardisagreementsoftenariseoverquestionsofidentificationfrmentaryremains—deg,forinstance,whetheraparticularbonerepresentsafemaleAustralopithecusboiseioramaleHomohabilis.
Withsolittletobecertainabout,stistsofteomakeassumptionsbasedonotherobjectsfoundnearby,andthesemaybelittlemorethanvaliantguesses.AsAlanWalkerandPatShipmanhavedrilyobserved,ifyoucorrelatetooldiscoverywiththespeciesofcreaturemostoftenfoundnearby,youwouldhavetocludethatearlyhandtoolsweremostlymadebyantelopes.
PerhapsnothiertypifiesthefusionthanthefragmentarybundleoftradisthatwasHomohabilis.Simplyput,habilisbonesmakenosense.Whenarrangedinsequeheyshowmalesandfemalesevolvingatdifferentratesandindifferentdires—themalesbeinglessapelikeandmorehumanwithtime,whilefemalesfromthesameperiodappeartobemovingawayfromhumareaterapeness.Someauthoritiesdon’tbelievehabilisisavalidcategoryatall.TattersallandhiscolleagueJeffreySchwartzdismissitasamere“wastebasketspecies”—oowhirelatedfossils“couldbevelyswept.”
Eventhosewhoseehabilisasanindepespeciesdon’tagreeoheritisofthesamegenusasusorisfromasidebranchthatnevercametoanything.
Finally,butperhapsaboveall,humannatureisafactorinallthis.Stistshaveanaturalteointerpretfindsihatmostflatterstheirstature.Itisararepaleontologistindeedwhoannouhathehasfoundacacheofbothattheyarenothingtogetexcitedabout.OrasJohnReaderuatedlyobservesinthebookMissingLinks,“Itisremarkablehowoftenthefirstinterpretationsofnewevidencehavefirmedthepreceptionsofitsdiscoverer.”
Allthisleavesamplerouments,ofcourse,andnobodylikestuemorethahropologists.“Andofallthedisciplinesinsce,paleoanthropologyboastsperhapsthelargestshareofegos,”saytheauthorsoftheretJavaMan—abook,itmaybehatitselfdevoteslong,wonderfullyunselfsciouspassagestoattatheinadequaciesofothers,inparticulartheauthors’formerclosecolleagueDonaldJohanson.Hereisasmallsampling:
Inouryearsofcollaborationattheinstitutehe[Johanson]developedawell-deserved,ifunfortunate,reputationforuableandhigh-decibelpersonalverbalassaults,sometimesapahetossingaroundofbooksorwhateverelsecamevelytohand.
So,bearinginmindthatthereislittleyousayabouthumaorythatwon’tbedisputedbysomeonesomewhere,otherthanthatwemostcertainlyhadone,whatwethinkweknowaboutwhoweareandwhereweefrhlythis:
Forthefirst99.99999pertofourhistoryasanisms,wewereinthesamearallineaschimpanzees.Virtuallynothingisknownabouttheprehistoryofchimpanzees,butwhatevertheywere,wewere.Thenaboutsevenmillionyearsagosomethingmajorhappened.
AgroupofnewbeingsemergedfromthetropicalforestsofAfridbegantomoveaboutontheopensavanna.
Theseweretheaustralopithees,andforthefivemillioheywouldbetheworld’sdominanthominidspecies.(AustralisfromtheLatinfor“southern”andhasnoeinthistexttoAustralia.)Australopitheescameinseveralvarieties,someslenderandgracile,likeRaymondDart’sTaungchild,othersmoresturdyandrobust,butallwerecapableofwalkingupright.Someofthesespeciesexistedforwelloveramillionyears,othersforamoremodestfewhuhousand,butitisworthbearinginmindthateventheleastsuccessfulhadhistoriesmanytimeslohanwehaveyetachieved.
Themostfamoushominidremainsintheworldarethoseofa3.18-million-year-oldaustralopitheefoundatHadarihiopiain1974byateamledbyDonaldJohanson.
FormallyknownasA.L.(for“AfarLocality”)288–1,theskeletonbecamemorefamiliarlyknownasLucy,aftertheBeatlessong“LutheSkywithDiamonds.”Johansonhasneverdoubtedherimportance.“Sheisourearliestaor,themissinglieandhuman,”hehassaid.
Lucywastiny—justthreeandahalffeettall.Shecouldwalk,thoughhowwellisamatterofsomedispute.Shewasevidentlyagoodclimber,too.Muchelseisunknown.Herskullwasalmostentirelymissing,solittlecouldbesaidwithfidenceaboutherbraihoughskullfragmentssuggesteditwassmall.MostbooksdescribeLucy’sskeletonasbeing40pertplete,thoughsomeputitclosertohalf,andoneproducedbytheAmeriMuseumofNaturalHistorydescribesLucyastwo-thirdsplete.TheBBCtelevisionseriesApeManactuallycalledit“apleteskeleton,”evenwhileshowingthatitwasanythingbut.
Ahumanbodyhas206bones,butmanyofthesearerepeated.Ifyouhavetheleftfemurfromaspe,youdoherighttoknowitsdimensions.Stripoutalltheredundantbones,aalyouareleftwithis120—whatiscalledahalfskeletohisfairlyaodatingstandard,andeventingtheslightestfragmentasafullbone,Lustitutedonly28pertofahalfskeleton(andonlyabout20pertofafullone).
InTheWisdomoftheBones,AlanWalkerretshowheonceaskedJohansonhowhehadeupwithafigureof40pert.Johansonbreezilyrepliedthathehaddistedthe106bohehandsa—morethanhalfthebody’stotal,andafairlyimportanthalf,too,onewouldhavethought,sinceLucy’sprincipaldefiningattributewastheuseofthosehandsaodealwithagingworld.Atallevents,ratherlessisknownaboutLucythanisgenerallysupposed.Itisn’tevenactuallyknownthatshewasafemale.Hersexismerelypresumedfromherdiminutivesize.
TwoyearsafterLucy’sdiscovery,atLaetoliinTanzaniaMaryLeakeyfoundfootpribytwoindividualsfrom—itisthought—thesamefamilyofhominids.Theprintshadbeenmadewhentwoaustralopitheeshadwalkedthroughmuddyashfollowingavoliceruption.Theashhadlaterhardened,preservingtheimpressionsoftheirfeetforadistanceofovertwenty-threemeters.
TheAmeriMuseumofNaturalHistoryinNewYorkhasanabsdioramathatrecordsthemomentoftheirpassing.Itdepictslife-sizedre-creationsofamaleandafemalewalkingsidebysideacrosstheaAfriplain.Theyarehairyandchimplikeindimensions,buthaveabearingandgaitthatsuggesthumahemoststrikiureofthedisplayisthatthemaleholdshisleftarmprotectivelyaroundthefemale’sshoulder.Itisatenderandaffeggesture,suggestiveofclosebonding.
Thetableauisdohsuvithatitiseasytooverlookthesiderationthatvirtuallyeverythingabovethefootprintsisimaginary.Almosteveryexternalaspectofthetwofigures—degreeofhairiness,facialappendages(whethertheyhadhumannosesorchimpnoses),expressions,skincolor,sizeandshapeofthefemale’sbreasts—isnecessarilysuppositional.We’tevensaythattheyle.Thefemalefiguremayinfacthavebeenachild.Norwebecertainthattheywereaustralopithees.Theyareassumedtobeaustralopitheesbecausetherearenootherknowndidates.
Ihadbeentoldthattheywereposedlikethatbecauseduringthebuildingofthedioramathefemalefigurekepttopplingover,butIanTattersallinsistswithalaughthatthestoryisuntrue.“Obviouslywedon’tknowwhetherthemalehadhisarmaroundthefemaleornot,butwedoknowfromthestridemeasurementsthattheywerewalkingsidebysideandclosetogether—closeenoughtobetoug.Itwasquiteanexposedarea,sotheywereprobablyfeelingvulnerable.That’swhywetriedtogivethemslightlyworriedexpressions.”
Iaskedhimifhewastroubledabouttheamountoflisethatwastakeninrestrugthefigures.“It’salrobleminmakingre-creations,”heagreedreadilyenough.“Youwouldn’tbelievehowmuchdiscussiongointodegdetailslikewhetherNeaalshadeyebrowsornot.ItwasjustthesamefortheLaetolifigures.Wesimply’tknowthedetailsofwhattheylookedlike,butweveytheirsizeandpostureandmakesomereasonableassumptionsabouttheirprobableappearance.IfIhadittodoagain,IthinkImighthavemadethemjustslightlymoreapelikeandlesshuman.Thesecreaturesweren’thumans.
Theywerebipedalapes.”
UntilveryretlyitwasassumedthatweweredesdedfromLudtheLaetolicreatures,butnowmanyauthoritiesaren’tsosure.Althoughcertainphysicalfeatures(theteeth,forinstance)suggestapossibleliweenus,otherpartsoftheaustralopitheeanatomyaremoretroubling.IntheirbookExtinctHumans,TattersallandSchointoutthattheupperportionofthehumanfemurisverylikethatoftheapesbutnotoftheaustralopithees;soifLucyisinadireebetesandmodernhumans,itmeahaveadoptedanaustralopitheefemurforamillionyearsorso,thengonebacktoanapefemurwhenwemovedontothephaseofourdevelopment.Theybelieve,infact,thatnotonlywasLuotouraor,shewasn’tevenmuchofawalker.
“Ludherkinddidnotlooteinanythinglikethemodernhumanfashion,”insistsTattersall.“Onlywhenthesehominidshadtotravelbetweenarborealhabitatswouldtheyfindthemselveswalkingbipedally,‘forced’todosobytheirownanatomies.”Johansoacceptthis.“Lucy’shipsandthemusculararraofherpelvis,”hehaswritten,“wouldhavemadeitashardforhertoclimbtreesasitisformodernhumans.”
Mattersgrewmurkierstillin2001and2002whenfourexceptionalnewspeswerefound.One,discoveredbyMeaveLeakeyofthefamousfossil-huntingfamilyatLakeTurkanainKenyaandcalledKenyanthropusplatyops(“Kenyanflat-face”),isfromaboutthesametimeasLudraisesthepossibilitythatitwasouraorandLucywasanunsuccessfulsidebranch.Alsofoundin2001ithecusramiduskadabba,datedatbetween5.2millionand5.8millionyearsold,andOrrorintugenensis,thoughttobe6millionyearsold,makingittheoldesthomifound—butonlyforabriefwhile.Inthesummerof2002aFrenchteamwintheDjurabDesertofChad(ahathadneverbeforeyieldedabones)foundahominidalmost7millionyearsold,whichtheylabeledSahelanthropustchadensis.(Somecriticsbelievethatitwasnothuman,butanearlyapeandthereforeshouldbecalledSahelpithecus.)Allthesewereearlycreaturesandquiteprimitivebuttheywalkedupright,andtheyweredoingsofarearlierthanpreviouslythought.
Bipedalismisademandingandriskystrategy.Itmeansrefashioningthepelvisintoafullload-bearinginstrument.Topreservetherequiredstrength,松语文学www.16sy.coM免费小说阅读
1Severalthingswereextraordinaryaboutthis.Tobeginwith,noonehadevergonelookingforahumanbonesbefore.Everythingthathadbeenfoundtothispointhadbeenfoundactally,andnothinginDubois’sbackgroundsuggestedthathewastheidealdidatetomaketheprocessiional.Hewasananatomistbytrainingwithnobackgroundiology.NorwasthereanyspecialreasontosupposethattheEastIndieswouldholdearlyhumanremains.Logicdictatedthatifapeopleweretobefoundatall,itwouldbeonalargeandlong-populatedlandmass,notintheparativefastnessofanarchipelago.
DuboiswasdriventotheEastIndiesonnothingstrohanahunch,theavailabilityofemployment,andthekhatSumatrawasfullofcaves,theenviroinwhichmostoftheimportanthominidfossilshadsofarbeenfound.Whatismostextraordinaryinallthis—nearlymiraculous,really—isthathefoundwhathewaslookingfor.
AtthetimeDuboisceivedhisplantosearissinglink,thehumanfossilrecordsistedofverylittle:fiveinpleteNeaalskeletons,oialjawboneofuainprovenandahalf-dozenice-agehumalyfoundbyrailwayworkersinacaveatacliffcalledagnonnearLesEyzies,FraheNeaalspes,thebestpreservedwassittingunremarkedonashelfinLondon.IthadbeenfoundbyworkersblastingroaquarryinGibraltarin1848,soitspreservationwasawonder,butunfortunatelyappreciatedwhatitwas.AfterbeingbrieflydescribedatameetingoftheGibraltarStificSociety,ithadbeeotheHunterianMuseuminLondoremainedundisturbedbutforanoccasionallightdustingforoverhalfatury.Thefirstformaldescriptionofitwasn’twrittenuntil1907,andthenbyageologistnamedWilliamSollas“withonlyapassingpetenanatomy.”
SoihenameaforthediscoveryofthefirstearlyhumaotheNeanderValleyinGermany—notunfittingly,asithappens,forbyunyeanderinGreekmeans“newman.”Therein1856workmenatanotherquarry,inaclifffaceoverlookingtheDüsselRiver,foundsomecurious-lookingbones,whichtheypassedtoalocalschoolteacher,knowinghehadainallthingsnatural.Tohisgreatcredittheteacher,JohannKarlFuhlrott,sawthathehadsomeypeofhuman,thoughquitewhatitwas,andhowspecial,wouldbemattersofdisputeforsometime.
ManypeoplerefusedtoacceptthattheNeaalboneswereaall.AugustMayer,aprofessorattheUyofBonnandamanofinfluensistedthatthebohoughDutch,DuboiswasfromEijsden,atownbtheFrench-speakingpartofBelgium.
merelythoseofaMongolianCossacksoldierwhohadbeenwoundedwhilefightinginGermanyin1814andhadcrawledintothecavetodie.Hearingofthis,T.H.HuxleyinEnglanddrilyobservedhowremarkableitwasthatthesoldier,thoughmortallywounded,hadclimbedsixtyfeetupacliff,divestedhimselfofhisclothingandpersonaleffects,sealedthecaveopening,andburiedhimselfuwofeetofsoil.Ahropologist,puzzliheNeaal’sheavybre,suggestedthatitwastheresultoflong-termfrowningarisingfromapoorlyhealedforearmfracture.(Intheireagerorejecttheideaofearlierhumans,authoritieswereoftenwillingtoembracethemostsingularpossibilities.AtaboutthetimethatDuboiswassettingoutforSumatra,askeletonfoundinPérigueuxwasfidentlydeclaredtobethatofanEskimo.QuitewhatanaEskimowasdoinginsouthwestFrancewasneverfortablyexplaiwasactuallyanearlyagnon.)ItwasagainstthisbackgroundthatDuboisbeganhissearchforahumanbones.Hedidnodigginghimself,butinsteadusedfiftyvictslentbytheDutchauthorities.ForayeartheyworkedonSumatra,thentransferredtoJava.Andtherein1891,Dubois—orratherhisteam,forDuboishimselfseldomvisitedthesites—fouionofahumaniumnowknownastheTrinilskullcap.Thoughonlypartofaskull,itshowedthattheownerhadhaddistinonhumauresbutamuchlargerbrainthananyape.DuboiscalleditAnthropithecuserectus(latergedforteicalreasonstoPithethropuserectus)anddeclareditthemissingliesandhumans.Itquicklybecamepopularizedas“JavaMan.”TodayweknowitasHomoerectus.
TheyearDubois’sworkersfoundavirtuallypletethighbolookedsurprisinglymodern.Infact,manyanthropologiststhinkitismodern,andhasnothingtodowithJavaMan.IfitisausboisunlikeanyotherfoundsinohelessDuboisusedthethighboodeduce—correctly,asittur—thatPithethropuswalkedupright.Healsoproduced,withnothingbutascrapofiumah,amodelofthepleteskull,whichalsoprovedunilyaccurate.
In1895,DuboisreturoEurope,expegatriumphalreception.Infact,hemetnearlytheoppositereaoststistsdislikedbothhisclusionsandthearrogantmannerinwhichhepresehem.Theskullcap,theysaid,wasthatofanape,probablyagibbon,andnotofanyearlyhuman.Hopingtobolsterhiscase,in1897DuboisalloectedanatomistfromtheUyofStrasbustavSchwalbe,tomakeacastoftheskullcap.
ToDubois’sdismay,SchwalbethereuponproducedamonographthatreceivedfarmoresympatheticattentionthananythingDuboishadwrittenandfollowedwithalecturetourinwhichhewascelebratednearlyaswarmlyasifhehadduguptheskullhimself.Appalledatered,DuboiswithdrewintoanundistinguishedpositionasaprofesseologyattheUyofAmsterdamandforthewodecadesrefusedtoletanyoneexaminehispreciousfossilsagain.Hediedin1940anunhappyman.
Meanwhile,andhalfaworldaway,inlate1924RaymondDart,theAustralian-bornheadofanatomyattheUyoftheWitwatersrandinJohannesburg,wassentasmallbutremarkablypleteskullofachild,withanintactface,alowerjaw,andwhatisknownasanendocast—anaturalcastofthebrain—fromalimestonequarryontheedgeoftheKalahariDesertatadustyspotcalledTaung.DartcouldseeatotheTaungskullwasnotofaHomoerectuslikeDubois’sJavaMan,butfromanearlier,moreapelikecreature.HeplaceditsageattwomillionyearsanddubbeditAustralopithecusafrius,or“southernapemanofAfrica.”ItoNature,DartcalledtheTaungremains“amazinglyhuman”andsuggestedtheneedforairelynewfamily,Homosimiadae(“theman-apes”),toaodatethefind.
TheauthoritieswereevenlessfavorablydisposedtoDartthantheyhadbeentoDubois.
Nearlyeverythingabouthistheory—indeed,nearlyeverythingaboutDart,itappears—ahem.FirsthehadprovedhimselflamentablypresumptuousbydugtheanalysishimselfratherthancallingonthehelpofmoreworldlyexpertsinEurope.Evenhischosenname,Australopithecus,showedalackofscholarlyapplication,biningasitdidGreekandLatinroots.Aboveall,hisclusiohefaceofacceptedwisdom.
Humansawasagreed,hadsplitapartatleastfifteenmillionyearsagoinAsia.IfhumanshadariseninAfrica,why,thatwouldmakeusNegroid,foodnesssake.Itwasratherasifsomeonewtodayweretoannouhehadfoundthearalbonesofhumansin,say,Missouri.Itjustdidn’tfitasknown.
Dart’ssolesupporterofnotewasRobertBroom,aScottish-bornphysiandpaleontologistofsiderableintelledcherishablyetriature.ItwasBroom’shabit,forinstaodohisfieldworknakedwheherwaswarm,whichwasoften.
Hewasalsoknownfordugdubiousanatomicalexperimentsonhispoorerandmoretractablepatients.Wheientsdied,whichwasalsooften,hewouldsometimesburytheirbodiesinhisbackgardentodigupforstudylater.
Broomwasanaplishedpaleontologist,andsincehewasalsoresidentinSouthAfricahewasabletoexamiaungskullatfirsthand.HecouldseeatoitortantasDartsupposedandspokeoutvigorouslyonDart’sbehalf,buttonoeffect.ForthefiftyyearsthereceivedwisdomwasthattheTaungchildeandnothingmore.Mosttextbooksdidn’teveionit.Dartspentfiveyearswupamonograph,butcouldfindopublishit.Eventuallyhegaveupthequesttopublishaltogether(thoughhedidtiingforfossils).Foryears,theskull—tnizedasohesupremetreasuresofanthropology—satasapaperweightonacolleague’sdesk.
AtthetimeDartmadehisannouin1924,onlyfourcategoriesofahominidwereknown—Homoheidelbergensis,Homorhodesiensis,Neaals,andDubois’sJavaMan—butallthatwasabouttogeinaverybigway.
First,ina,agiftedadianamateurnamedDavidsonBlackbegantopokearoundataplace,DragonBoneHill,thatwaslocallyfamousasahuntinggroundforoldbones.
Unfortunately,ratherthanpreservingthebonesforstudy,theesegrouomakemedies.WelyguesshoricelessHomoerectusbonesendedupasasortofeseequivalentofbicarbonateofsoda.ThesitehadbeenmuudedbythetimeBlackarrived,buthefoundasinglefossilizedmolarandonthebasisofthataloebrilliantlyannouhediscoveryofSinanthropuspekinensis,whichquicklybecameknoekingMan.
AtBlack’surging,moredeterminedexcavationswereuakenandmanyotherbonesfound.UnfortunatelyallwerelostthedayaftertheJapaaPearlHarborin1941whenatiofU.S.Mariryingtospiritthebones(andthemselves)outofthetry,wasinterceptedbytheJapaneseandimprisoned.SeeingthattheircratesheldnothingbutboheJapanesesoldiersleftthemattheroadside.Itwasthelastthatwaseverseenofthem.
Inthemeantime,baDubois’soldturfofJava,ateamledbyRalphvonKoenigswaldhadfoundanroupofearlyhumans,whichbecameknownastheSoloPeoplefromthesiteoftheirdiscoveryontheSoloRiveratNgandong.Koenigswald’sdiscoveriesmighthavebeenmoreimpressivestillbutforatacticalerrorthatwasrealizedtoolate.Hehadofferedlocalstesforeverypieinidboheycouldeupwith,thendiscoveredtohishorrorthattheyhadbeehusiasticallysmashinglargepietosmalloomaximizetheirine.
Inthefollowingyearsasmoreboneswerefoundaifiedtherecameafloodofnewnames—Homnasis,Australopithecustransvaalensis,Paranthropuscrassidens,Zinjanthropusboisei,andscoresofothers,nearlyallinvolvingaypeaswellasanewspecies.Bythe1950s,thenumberofnamedhominidtypeshadrisentofortablyoverahuoaddtothefusion,individualformsoftebyasuccessionofdifferentnamesaspaleoanthropologistsrefined,reworked,andsquabbledoverclassifications.SoloPeoplewereknownvariouslyasHomosoloensis,Heniusasiaticus,Homoneahalensissoloensis,Homosapienssoloensis,Homoerectuserectus,and,finally,plainHomoerectus.
Inaointrodueorder,in1960F.ClarkHowelloftheUyofChicago,followingthesuggestioMayrandothersthepreviousdecade,proposedcuttingthenumberofgeojusttwo—AustralopithedHomo—andrationalizingmanyofthespecies.TheJavaandPekihbecameHomoerectus.Foratimeorderprevailedintheworldofthehominids.
2Itdidn’tlast.
Afteraboutadeparativecalm,paleoanthropologyembarkedonanotherperiodofsrolificdiscovery,whichhasn’tabatedyet.The1960sproduohabilis,thoughtbysometobethemissingliesandhumans,butthoughtbyothersnottobeaseparatespeciesatall.Thencame(amongmanyothers)Haster,Homolouisleakeyi,Homorudolfensis,Homomicrous,andHomoantecessor,aswellasaraftofaustralopithees:A.afarensis,A.praegens,A.ramidus,A.walkeri,A.anamensis,andstillothers.Altogether,sometwentytypesofhominidarereizedieraturetoday.
Unfortunately,almostnotwoexpertsreizethesametwenty.
SometioobservethetwohominidgenerasuggestedbyHowellin1960,butothersplaeoftheaustralopitheesinaseparategenuscalledParanthropus,andstillothersaddanearliergroupcalledArdipithecus.SomeputpraegensintoAustralopithedsomeintoanewclassification,Homoantiquus,butmostdnizepraegensasaseparatespeciesatall.Thereisralauthoritythatrulesohings.Theonlywayanamebeesacceptedisbysensus,andthereisoftenverylittleofthat.
Abigpartoftheproblem,paradoxically,isasheofevidence.Sihedawnoftime,severalbillionhuman(orhumanlike)beingshavelived,eatributingalittlegeicvariabilitytothetotalhumanstock.Outofthisvasthewholeofouruandingofhumaoryisbasedontheremains,oftenexceedinglyfragmentary,ofperhapsfivethousandindividuals.“Youcouldfititallintothebackofapickuptruckifyoudidn’tmind2HumainthelamelyHomimdae.Itsmembers,traditionallycalledhominids,includeaures(includiines)thataremorecloselyrelatedtousthantoanysurvivingchimpaheapes,meanwhile,arelumpedtogetherinafamilycalledPongidae.Manyauthoritiesbelievethatchimps,gorillas,andutansshouldalsobeincludedinthisfamily,withhumansandchimpsinasubfamilycalledHomininae.
Theupshotisthatthecreaturestraditionallycalledhominidsbee,uhisarra,hominins.(Leakeyandothersinsistonthatdesignation.)Homiheheauesunerfamilywhicludesus.
howmubledeverythingup,”IanTattersall,thebeardedandfriendlycuratorofanthropologyattheAmeriMuseumofNaturalHistoryinNewYork,repliedwhenIaskedhimthesizeofthetotalworldarchiveofhominidandearlyhumanbones.
Theshewouldn’tbesobadifthebonesweredistributedevenlythroughtimeandspace,butofcoursetheyarenot.Theyappearrandomly,oftenitantalizingfashion.
HomoerectuswalkedtheEarthforwelloveramillionyearsandinhabitedterritoryfromtheAtlanticedgeofEuropetothePacificsideofa,yetifyhtbacktolifeeveryHomoerectusindividualwhoseexistencewevouchfor,theywouldn’tfillaschoolbus.
Homohabilissistsofevenless:justtwopartialskeletonsandanumberofisolatedlimbbones.Somethingasshort-livedasourowncivilizationwouldalmostcertainlynotbeknownfromthefossilrecordatall.
“InEurope,”Tattersalloffersbywayofillustration,“you’vegothominidskullsinGeiadatedtoabout1.7millionyearsago,butthenyouhaveagapofalmostamillionyearsbeforetheremainsturnupinSpain,rightohersideoftheti,andthenyou’vegotanother300,000-yeargapbeforeyougetaHomoheidelbergensisinGermany—andhemlooksterriblymuchlikeanyoftheothers.”Hesmiled.“It’sfromthesekindsmentarypiecesthatyou’retryingtoworkoutthehistoriesofentirespecies.It’squiteatallorder.Wereallyhaveverylittleideaoftherelationshipsbetweenmanyaspecies—whichledtousandwhichwereevolutionarydeadends.Someprobablydon’tdeservetardedasseparatespeciesatall.”
Itisthepatessoftherecordthatmakeseaewfindlooksosuddenanddistinalltheothers.Ifwehadtensofthousandsofskeletonsdistributedatregularintervalsthroughthehistoricalrecord,therewouldbeappreciablymreesofshading.Wholenewspeciesdon’temergeinstantaneously,asthefossilreplies,butgraduallyoutofother,existingspecies.Theclobacktoapointofdivergehecloserthesimilaritiesare,sothatitbeesexceedinglydifficult,andsometimesimpossible,todistinguishalateHomoerectusfromanearlyHomosapiens,siislikelytobebothaher.Similardisagreementsoftenariseoverquestionsofidentificationfrmentaryremains—deg,forinstance,whetheraparticularbonerepresentsafemaleAustralopithecusboiseioramaleHomohabilis.
Withsolittletobecertainabout,stistsofteomakeassumptionsbasedonotherobjectsfoundnearby,andthesemaybelittlemorethanvaliantguesses.AsAlanWalkerandPatShipmanhavedrilyobserved,ifyoucorrelatetooldiscoverywiththespeciesofcreaturemostoftenfoundnearby,youwouldhavetocludethatearlyhandtoolsweremostlymadebyantelopes.
PerhapsnothiertypifiesthefusionthanthefragmentarybundleoftradisthatwasHomohabilis.Simplyput,habilisbonesmakenosense.Whenarrangedinsequeheyshowmalesandfemalesevolvingatdifferentratesandindifferentdires—themalesbeinglessapelikeandmorehumanwithtime,whilefemalesfromthesameperiodappeartobemovingawayfromhumareaterapeness.Someauthoritiesdon’tbelievehabilisisavalidcategoryatall.TattersallandhiscolleagueJeffreySchwartzdismissitasamere“wastebasketspecies”—oowhirelatedfossils“couldbevelyswept.”
Eventhosewhoseehabilisasanindepespeciesdon’tagreeoheritisofthesamegenusasusorisfromasidebranchthatnevercametoanything.
Finally,butperhapsaboveall,humannatureisafactorinallthis.Stistshaveanaturalteointerpretfindsihatmostflatterstheirstature.Itisararepaleontologistindeedwhoannouhathehasfoundacacheofbothattheyarenothingtogetexcitedabout.OrasJohnReaderuatedlyobservesinthebookMissingLinks,“Itisremarkablehowoftenthefirstinterpretationsofnewevidencehavefirmedthepreceptionsofitsdiscoverer.”
Allthisleavesamplerouments,ofcourse,andnobodylikestuemorethahropologists.“Andofallthedisciplinesinsce,paleoanthropologyboastsperhapsthelargestshareofegos,”saytheauthorsoftheretJavaMan—abook,itmaybehatitselfdevoteslong,wonderfullyunselfsciouspassagestoattatheinadequaciesofothers,inparticulartheauthors’formerclosecolleagueDonaldJohanson.Hereisasmallsampling:
Inouryearsofcollaborationattheinstitutehe[Johanson]developedawell-deserved,ifunfortunate,reputationforuableandhigh-decibelpersonalverbalassaults,sometimesapahetossingaroundofbooksorwhateverelsecamevelytohand.
So,bearinginmindthatthereislittleyousayabouthumaorythatwon’tbedisputedbysomeonesomewhere,otherthanthatwemostcertainlyhadone,whatwethinkweknowaboutwhoweareandwhereweefrhlythis:
Forthefirst99.99999pertofourhistoryasanisms,wewereinthesamearallineaschimpanzees.Virtuallynothingisknownabouttheprehistoryofchimpanzees,butwhatevertheywere,wewere.Thenaboutsevenmillionyearsagosomethingmajorhappened.
AgroupofnewbeingsemergedfromthetropicalforestsofAfridbegantomoveaboutontheopensavanna.
Theseweretheaustralopithees,andforthefivemillioheywouldbetheworld’sdominanthominidspecies.(AustralisfromtheLatinfor“southern”andhasnoeinthistexttoAustralia.)Australopitheescameinseveralvarieties,someslenderandgracile,likeRaymondDart’sTaungchild,othersmoresturdyandrobust,butallwerecapableofwalkingupright.Someofthesespeciesexistedforwelloveramillionyears,othersforamoremodestfewhuhousand,butitisworthbearinginmindthateventheleastsuccessfulhadhistoriesmanytimeslohanwehaveyetachieved.
Themostfamoushominidremainsintheworldarethoseofa3.18-million-year-oldaustralopitheefoundatHadarihiopiain1974byateamledbyDonaldJohanson.
FormallyknownasA.L.(for“AfarLocality”)288–1,theskeletonbecamemorefamiliarlyknownasLucy,aftertheBeatlessong“LutheSkywithDiamonds.”Johansonhasneverdoubtedherimportance.“Sheisourearliestaor,themissinglieandhuman,”hehassaid.
Lucywastiny—justthreeandahalffeettall.Shecouldwalk,thoughhowwellisamatterofsomedispute.Shewasevidentlyagoodclimber,too.Muchelseisunknown.Herskullwasalmostentirelymissing,solittlecouldbesaidwithfidenceaboutherbraihoughskullfragmentssuggesteditwassmall.MostbooksdescribeLucy’sskeletonasbeing40pertplete,thoughsomeputitclosertohalf,andoneproducedbytheAmeriMuseumofNaturalHistorydescribesLucyastwo-thirdsplete.TheBBCtelevisionseriesApeManactuallycalledit“apleteskeleton,”evenwhileshowingthatitwasanythingbut.
Ahumanbodyhas206bones,butmanyofthesearerepeated.Ifyouhavetheleftfemurfromaspe,youdoherighttoknowitsdimensions.Stripoutalltheredundantbones,aalyouareleftwithis120—whatiscalledahalfskeletohisfairlyaodatingstandard,andeventingtheslightestfragmentasafullbone,Lustitutedonly28pertofahalfskeleton(andonlyabout20pertofafullone).
InTheWisdomoftheBones,AlanWalkerretshowheonceaskedJohansonhowhehadeupwithafigureof40pert.Johansonbreezilyrepliedthathehaddistedthe106bohehandsa—morethanhalfthebody’stotal,andafairlyimportanthalf,too,onewouldhavethought,sinceLucy’sprincipaldefiningattributewastheuseofthosehandsaodealwithagingworld.Atallevents,ratherlessisknownaboutLucythanisgenerallysupposed.Itisn’tevenactuallyknownthatshewasafemale.Hersexismerelypresumedfromherdiminutivesize.
TwoyearsafterLucy’sdiscovery,atLaetoliinTanzaniaMaryLeakeyfoundfootpribytwoindividualsfrom—itisthought—thesamefamilyofhominids.Theprintshadbeenmadewhentwoaustralopitheeshadwalkedthroughmuddyashfollowingavoliceruption.Theashhadlaterhardened,preservingtheimpressionsoftheirfeetforadistanceofovertwenty-threemeters.
TheAmeriMuseumofNaturalHistoryinNewYorkhasanabsdioramathatrecordsthemomentoftheirpassing.Itdepictslife-sizedre-creationsofamaleandafemalewalkingsidebysideacrosstheaAfriplain.Theyarehairyandchimplikeindimensions,buthaveabearingandgaitthatsuggesthumahemoststrikiureofthedisplayisthatthemaleholdshisleftarmprotectivelyaroundthefemale’sshoulder.Itisatenderandaffeggesture,suggestiveofclosebonding.
Thetableauisdohsuvithatitiseasytooverlookthesiderationthatvirtuallyeverythingabovethefootprintsisimaginary.Almosteveryexternalaspectofthetwofigures—degreeofhairiness,facialappendages(whethertheyhadhumannosesorchimpnoses),expressions,skincolor,sizeandshapeofthefemale’sbreasts—isnecessarilysuppositional.We’tevensaythattheyle.Thefemalefiguremayinfacthavebeenachild.Norwebecertainthattheywereaustralopithees.Theyareassumedtobeaustralopitheesbecausetherearenootherknowndidates.
Ihadbeentoldthattheywereposedlikethatbecauseduringthebuildingofthedioramathefemalefigurekepttopplingover,butIanTattersallinsistswithalaughthatthestoryisuntrue.“Obviouslywedon’tknowwhetherthemalehadhisarmaroundthefemaleornot,butwedoknowfromthestridemeasurementsthattheywerewalkingsidebysideandclosetogether—closeenoughtobetoug.Itwasquiteanexposedarea,sotheywereprobablyfeelingvulnerable.That’swhywetriedtogivethemslightlyworriedexpressions.”
Iaskedhimifhewastroubledabouttheamountoflisethatwastakeninrestrugthefigures.“It’salrobleminmakingre-creations,”heagreedreadilyenough.“Youwouldn’tbelievehowmuchdiscussiongointodegdetailslikewhetherNeaalshadeyebrowsornot.ItwasjustthesamefortheLaetolifigures.Wesimply’tknowthedetailsofwhattheylookedlike,butweveytheirsizeandpostureandmakesomereasonableassumptionsabouttheirprobableappearance.IfIhadittodoagain,IthinkImighthavemadethemjustslightlymoreapelikeandlesshuman.Thesecreaturesweren’thumans.
Theywerebipedalapes.”
UntilveryretlyitwasassumedthatweweredesdedfromLudtheLaetolicreatures,butnowmanyauthoritiesaren’tsosure.Althoughcertainphysicalfeatures(theteeth,forinstance)suggestapossibleliweenus,otherpartsoftheaustralopitheeanatomyaremoretroubling.IntheirbookExtinctHumans,TattersallandSchointoutthattheupperportionofthehumanfemurisverylikethatoftheapesbutnotoftheaustralopithees;soifLucyisinadireebetesandmodernhumans,itmeahaveadoptedanaustralopitheefemurforamillionyearsorso,thengonebacktoanapefemurwhenwemovedontothephaseofourdevelopment.Theybelieve,infact,thatnotonlywasLuotouraor,shewasn’tevenmuchofawalker.
“Ludherkinddidnotlooteinanythinglikethemodernhumanfashion,”insistsTattersall.“Onlywhenthesehominidshadtotravelbetweenarborealhabitatswouldtheyfindthemselveswalkingbipedally,‘forced’todosobytheirownanatomies.”Johansoacceptthis.“Lucy’shipsandthemusculararraofherpelvis,”hehaswritten,“wouldhavemadeitashardforhertoclimbtreesasitisformodernhumans.”
Mattersgrewmurkierstillin2001and2002whenfourexceptionalnewspeswerefound.One,discoveredbyMeaveLeakeyofthefamousfossil-huntingfamilyatLakeTurkanainKenyaandcalledKenyanthropusplatyops(“Kenyanflat-face”),isfromaboutthesametimeasLudraisesthepossibilitythatitwasouraorandLucywasanunsuccessfulsidebranch.Alsofoundin2001ithecusramiduskadabba,datedatbetween5.2millionand5.8millionyearsold,andOrrorintugenensis,thoughttobe6millionyearsold,makingittheoldesthomifound—butonlyforabriefwhile.Inthesummerof2002aFrenchteamwintheDjurabDesertofChad(ahathadneverbeforeyieldedabones)foundahominidalmost7millionyearsold,whichtheylabeledSahelanthropustchadensis.(Somecriticsbelievethatitwasnothuman,butanearlyapeandthereforeshouldbecalledSahelpithecus.)Allthesewereearlycreaturesandquiteprimitivebuttheywalkedupright,andtheyweredoingsofarearlierthanpreviouslythought.
Bipedalismisademandingandriskystrategy.Itmeansrefashioningthepelvisintoafullload-bearinginstrument.Topreservetherequiredstrength,松语文学www.16sy.coM免费小说阅读
推荐自己的新书《天命讨债人》齐天大魔猴
桀骜齐天圣，铮铮大魔猴
第817章 四公子当真与众不同？清穿后每天被迫撩
【欢脱独宠，沙雕撩夫日
新书《谜城》开启神峰
一次偶然， 他踏足修
第270章 酒吧偶遇网游之影子大师
我，在黑夜中行走 我
007儿女成群婚城难入
十八岁的她，一心想用高
第四百一十六章 邀请剑神之剑弑乾坤
《剑神之剑弑乾坤》是一
声明：本站所收录之:A Short History of Nearly Everything- 28 THE MYSTERIOUS BIPED、言情小说、玄幻、网游小说、及短篇作品、均为本站作者及网友上传。
并不代表本站立场!本站亦无法严格审:A Short History of Nearly Everything最新章节其版权归属。如您对A Short History of Nearly EverythingTXT下载持有版权方面的异议，请联系本站客服。我们将于72小时内处理。
Copyright (C) 2019 All Rights Reserved 版权所有：松语文学
并不代表本站立场!本站亦无法严格审:A Short History of Nearly Everything最新章节其版权归属。如您对A Short History of Nearly EverythingTXT下载持有版权方面的异议，请联系本站客服。我们将于72小时内处理。
Copyright (C) 2019 All Rights Reserved 版权所有：松语文学