29 THE RESTLESS APESOME
TIMEABOUTAmillionandahalfyearsago,somefottengeniusofthehominidworlddidanuedthing.He(orverypossiblyshe)tookooneandcarefullyusedittoshapeaheresultleteardrop-shapedhaitwastheworld’sfirstpieceofadvaeology.
Itwassosuperiortoexistingtoolsthatsoonotherswerefollowingtheior’sleadandmakinghaheirowuallywholesocietiesexistedthatseemedtodolittleelse.“Theymadethemihousands,”saysIanTattersall.“TherearesomeplaAfricawhereyouliterally’tmovewithoutsteppingo’sstrangebecausetheyarequiteintensiveobjeake.Itwasasiftheymadethemforthesheerpleasureofit.”
FromashelfinhissunnyworkroomTattersalltookdownanenormouscast,perhapsafootandahalflongaincheswideatitswidestpoint,andhaome.Itwasshapedlikeaspearhead,butohesizeofastepping-stone.Asafiberglasscastitweighedonlyafewounces,buttheinal,whichwasfoundinTanzania,weighedtwenty-fivepounds.“Itwaspletelyuselessasatool,”Tattersallsaid.“Itwouldhavetakentwopeopletoliftitadequately,ahenitwouldhavebeenexhaustingtotrytopoundanythingwithit.”
“Whatwasitusedforthen?”
Tattersallgaveagenialshrug,pleasedatthemysteryofit.“musthavehadsomesymbolicimportawelyguesswhat.”
TheaxesbecameknownasAcheuleantools,afterSt.Acheul,asuburbofAmiensinnorthernFrance,wherethefirstexampleswerefoundintheeeury,andtrastwiththeolder,simplertoolsknownasOldowan,inallyfoundatOlduvaiGeinTanzania.Iextbooks,Oldowantoolsareusuallyshownasblunt,rounded,hand-sizedstones.Infact,paleoanthropologistsobelievethatthetoolpartofOldowanrockswerethepiecesflakedofftheselargerstones,whichcouldthenbeusedforcutting.
Nowhere’sthemystery.Whenearlymodernhumans—theoneswhowouldeventuallybeeus—startedtomoveoutofAfriethingoverahuhousandyearsago,Acheuleantoolsweretheteologyofchoice.TheseearlyHomosapienslovedtheirAcheuleantools,too.Theycarriedthemvastdistances.Sometimestheyeventookunshapedrockswiththemtomakeintotoolslateron.Theywere,inaword,devotedtotheteology.
ButalthoughAcheuleantoolshavebeenfoundthroughoutAfrica,Europe,aernaralAsia,theyhavealmostneverbeenfoundintheFarEast.Thisisdeeplypuzzling.
Inthe1940saHarvardpaleontologistnamedHallumMoviusdrewsomethingcalledtheMoviusline,dividingthesidewithAcheuleantoolsfromtheohout.ThelinerunsinasoutheasterlydireacrossEuropeandtheMiddleEasttotheviityofmodern-dayCalcuttaandBangladesh.BeyondtheMoviusline,acrossthewholeofsoutheastAsiaandintoa,onlytheolder,simplerOldowantoolshavebeenfound.WeknowthatHomosapiefarbeyondthispoint,sowhywouldtheycarryanadvandtreasuredstoeologytotheedgeoftheFarEastandthenjustabandonit?
“Thattroubledmeforalongtime,”recallsAlanThorheAustralianNationalUyinberra.“ThewholeofmodernanthropologywasbuiltroundtheideathathumanscameoutofAfritwowaves—afirstwaveofHomoerectus,whichbecameJavaManandPekingManandthelike,andalater,moreadvancedwaveofHomosapiens,whichdisplacedthefirstlot.YettoacceptthatyoumustbelievethatHomosapiensgotsofarwiththeirmoremodernteologyandthen,forwhateverreason,gaveitup.Itwasallverypuzzling,tosaytheleast.”
Asittur,therewouldbeagreatdealelsetobepuzzledabout,ahemostpuzzlingfindingsofallwouldefromThorne’sownpartoftheworld,ibackofAustralia.In1968,ageologistnamedJimBowlerokingaroundonalong-driedlakebedcalledMungoinaparchedandlonelyerofwesternNewSouthWaleswhehingveryuedcaughthiseye.Stigoutofacrest-shapedsandridgeofatypeknownasalueweresomehumathetime,itwasbelievedthathumanshadbeeninAustraliafornomorethan8,000years,butMungohadbeendryfor12,000years.Sowhatwasanyonedoinginsuinhospitableplace?
Theanswer,providedbycarbondating,wasthatthebones’ownerhadlivedtherewhenLakeMungowasamuchmreeablehabitat,adozenmileslong,fullofwaterandfish,fringedbypleasantgrovesofcasuarioeveryone’sastonishment,thebourtobe23,000yearsold.Otherbonesfoundnearbyweredatedtoasmuchas60,000years.
Thiswasuedtothepointofseemingpracticallyimpossible.AtnotimesininidsfirstaroseohhasAustralianotbeenanisland.Anyhumanbeingswhoarrivedtheremusthaveebysea,inlargeenoughostartabreedingpopulation,aftercrossingsixtymilesormoreofopehouthavinganywayofknowingthatavelandfallawaitedthem.HavinglaheMungopeoplehadthenfoundtheirwaymorethantwothousandmilesinlandfromAustralia’snorthcoast—thepresumedpoiry—whichsuggests,acctoareportintheProceedingsoftheNationalAcademyofSces,“thatpeoplemayhavefirstarrivedsubstantiallyearlierthan60,00o.”
Howtheygotthereandwhytheycamearequestionsthat’tbeanswered.Acctomostanthropologytexts,there’snoevidepeoplecouldevenspeak60,00o,muchlessehesortsofcooperativeeffortsnecessarytobuildo-worthycraftandizeislandtis.
“There’sjustawholelotwedon’tknowaboutthemovementsofpeoplebeforerecordedhistory,”AlanThoroldmewhehiminberra.“Doyouknowthatwheeenth-turyanthropologistsfirstgottoPapuaNewGuiheyfoundpeopleinthehighlandsoftheinterior,ihemostinaccessibleterraih,growipotatoes.SweetpotatoesarenativetoSouthAmerica.SohowdidtheygettoPapuaNewGuinea?Wedon’tknow.Don’thavethefaiidea.Butwhatiscertainisthatpeoplehavebeenmovingaroundwithsiderableassurednessferthantraditionallythought,andalmostcertainlysharinggenesaswellasinformation.”
Theproblem,asever,isthefossilrecord.“Veryfewpartsoftheworldareevenvaguelyamehelong-termpreservationofhumanremains,”saysThorne,asharp-eyedmanwithawhitegoateeandabutfriendlymanner.“Ifitweren’tforafewproductiveareaslikeHadarandOlduvaiiAfricawe’dknhteninglylittle.Andwhenyoulookelsewhere,oftenwedoknhteninglylittle.ThewholeofIndiahasyieldedjustoneahumanfossil,fromabout300,00o.BetweenIraqanam—that’sadistane5,000kilometers—therehavebeenjusttwo:theoneinIndiaandaNeaalian.”Hegrihat’snotawholehellofalottoworkwith.You’releftwiththepositionthatyou’vegotafewproductiveareasforhumanfossils,liketheGreatRiftValleyinAfridMungohereinAustralia,andverylittleiween.It’snotsurprisingthatpaleontologistshavetroubleegthedots.”
Thetraditionaltheorytoexplainhumas—andtheoillacceptedbythemajorityofpeopleinthefield—isthathumansdispersedacrossEurasiaintwowaves.ThefirstwavesistedofHomoerectus,wholeftAfricaremarkablyquickly—almostassoonastheyemergedasaspecies—beginningnearlytwomillionyearsago.Overtime,astheysettledindifferentregions,theseearlyerectsfurtherevolvedintodistinctivetypes—intoJavaManandPekingManinAsia,andHomoheidelbergensisandfinallyHomoneahalensisinEurope.
Then,somethingoverahuhousandyearsago,asmarter,litherspeciesofcreature—theaorsofeveryoneofusalivetoday—aroseontheAfriplainsandbeganradiatingoutwardinasedwave.Wherevertheywent,acctothistheory,thesenewHomosapiensdisplacedtheirduller,lessadeptpredecessors.Quitehowtheydidthishasalwaysbeenamatterofdisputation.Nosignsofslaughterhaveeverbeenfound,somostauthoritiesbelievethenewerhominidssimplyoutpetedtheolderohoughotherfaayalsohavetributed.“Perhapswegavethemsmallpox,”suggestsTattersall.“There’snorealwayoftelling.Theoaintyisthatweareherenowandtheyaren’t.”
Thesefirstmodernhumansaresurprisinglyshadowy.Weknowlessaboutourselves,curiouslyenough,thanaboutalmostanyotherlineofhominids.Itisoddindeed,asTattersallhatthemostretmajoreventinhumanevolution—theemergenceofourownspecies—isperhapsthemostobscureofall.”Nobodyevenquiteagreewheretrulymodernhumansfirstappearinthefossilreanybooksplacetheirdebutatabout120,00ointheformofremainsfoundattheKlasiesRiverMouthinSouthAfrica,butnoteveryoneacceptsthatthesewerefullymodernpeople.TattersallandSchwartzmaintainthat“whetheranyorallofthemactuallyrepresentourspeciesstillawaitsdefinitiveclarification.”
Thefirstundisputedappearanosapiensisiererranean,aroundmodern-dayIsrael,wheretheybegintoshowupabout100,00o—buteveheyaredescribed(byTrinkausandShipman)as“odd,difficult-to-classifyandpoorlyknown.”NeaalswerealreadywellestablishedintheregionandhadatypeoftoolkitknownasMousterian,whichthemodernhumansevidentlyfoundworthyenoughtoborrow.
NoNeaalremainshaveeverbeenfoundinnorthAfrica,buttheirtoolkitsturnupallovertheplaebodymusthavetakehere:modernhumaheonlydidate.ItisalsoknownthatNeaalsandmodernhumaedinsomefashionfortensofthousandsofyearsintheMiddleEast.“Wedon’tknowiftheytime-sharedthesamespaceoractuallylivedsidebyside,”Tattersallsays,butthemodernstinuedhappilytouseNeaaltools—hardlyvingevidenceofoverwhelmingsuperiority.Nolesscuriously,AcheuleantoolsarefoundintheMiddleEastwelloveramillionyearsago,butscarcelyexistinEuropeuntiljust300,00o.Again,whypeoplewhohadtheteologydidn’ttakethetoolswiththemisamystery.
Foralongtime,itwasbelievedthattheagnons,asmodernhumansinEuropebecameknown,drovetheNeaalsbeforethemastheyadvancedacrosstheti,eventuallyfthemtoitswesternmargins,whereessentiallytheyhadnochoicebuttofallintheseaoextinfact,itisnowknownthatagnonswereinthefarwestofEuropeataboutthesametimetheywerealsoinginfromtheeast.“Europerettyemptyplathosedays,”Tattersallsays.“Theymaynothaveenteredeachotherallthatoftehalltheiringsandgoings.”Onecuriosityoftheagnons’arrivalisthatitcameatatimeknowntopaleoclimatologyastheBoutellierinterval,whenEuropelungingfromaperiodofrelativemildnessianspellofpunishingcold.
WhateveritwasthatdrewthemtoEurope,itwasn’tthegloriousweather.
Inanycase,theideathatNeaalscrumpledinthefapetitionfromnewlyarrivedagnonsstrainsagainsttheevideleastalittle.Neaalswerenothingifnottough.Fortensofthousandsofyearstheylivedthroughditionsthatnomodernhumanoutsideafewpolarstistsandexplorershasexperienced.Duringtheworstoftheiceages,blizzardswithhurrie-fordswereon.Temperaturesroutinelyfellto50degreesbelowzeroFahre.PolarbearspaddedacrossthesnowyvalesofsouthernEngland.
Neaalsnaturallyretreatedfromtheworstofit,butevensotheywillhaveexperiencedweatherthatwasatleastasbadasamodernSiberianwiheysuffered,tobesure—aNeaalwholivedmuchpastthirtywasludeed—butasaspeciestheyweremagnifitlyresilientandpracticallyiructible.Theysurvivedforatleastahuhousandyears,andperhapstwicethat,overaretgfromGibraltartoUzbekistan,whichisaprettysuccessfulrunforanyspeciesofbeing.
Quitewhotheywereandwhattheywerelikeremainmattersofdisagreementanduainty.RightupuntilthemiddleofthetwehturytheacceptedanthropologicalviewoftheNeaalwasthathewasdim,stooped,shuffling,andsimian—thequintessentialcaveman.Itwasonlyapainfulactthatproddedstiststoresiderthisview.In1947,whiledoingfieldworkintheSahara,aFranco-AlgeriaologistnamedCamilleArambtefromthemiddaysuhewingofhislightairplane.Ashesatthere,atireburstfromtheheat,andtheplaippedsuddenly,strikinghimapainfulblowontheupperbody.LaterinParishewentforanX-rayofhisnednoticedthathisowebraewerealiglylikethoseofthestoopedandhulkingNeaal.
EitherhehysiologicallyprimitiveorNeaal’sposturehadbeenmisdescribed.Infact,itwasthelatter.Neaalvertebraewerenotsimianatall.ItgedutterlyhowweviewedNeaals—butonlysomeofthetime,itappears.
ItisstillohatNeaalslackedtheintelligenceorfibertopeteonequaltermswiththeti’sslenderandmorecerebrallynimblenewers,Homosapiens.Hereisatypientfromaretbook:“ModernhumaralizedthisadvaheNeaal’ssiderablyheartierphysique]withbetterclothierfiresaershelter;meanwhiletheNeaalswerestuckwithanoversizebodythatrequiredmorefoodtosustain.”Inotherwords,theveryfactorsthathadallowedthemtosurvivesuccessfullyforahuhousandyearssuddenlybecameaninsuperablehandicap.
AbovealltheissuethatisalmostneveraddressedisthatNeaalshadbrainsthatweresignifitlylargerthanthoseofmodernpeople—1.8litersforNeaalsversus1.4formodernpeople,acctoonecalculation.ThisismorethanthediffereweenmodernHomosapiensandlateHomoerectus,aspecieswearehappytardasbarelyhuman.Theargumentputforwardisthatalthoughourbrainsweresmaller,theyweresomehowmoreeffit.IbelieveIspeakthetruthwhenIobservethatnowhereelseinhumanevolutionissuargumentmade.
Sowhythen,youmaywellask,iftheNeaalsweresostoutandadaptableandcerebrallywellendowed,aretheynolohus?Onepossible(butmuchdisputed)ahatperhapstheyare.AlanThorneisoheleadingproposofaivetheory,knownasthemultiregionalhypothesis,whichholdsthathumanevolutionhasbeentinuous—thatjustasaustralopitheesevolvedintoHomohabilisandHomoheidelbergensisbecameovertimeHomoneahalensis,somodernHomosapienssimplyemergedfrommoreaHomoforms.Homoerectusis,onthisview,notaseparatespeciesbutjustatransitionalphase.ThusmodernesearedesdedfromaHomoerectusforebearsina,modernEuropeansfromaEuropeanHomoerectus,andsoon.
“ExceptthatformetherearenoHomoerectus,”saysThorhinkit’satermwhichhasoutliveditsusefulness.Forme,Homoerectusissimplyanearlierpartofus.IbelieveonlyonespeanshaseverleftAfridthatspeciesisHomosapiens.”
Opposofthemultiregionaltheoryrejectit,inthefirstinstahegroundsthatitrequiresanimprobableamountofparallelevolutionbyhominidsthroughouttheOldWorld—inAfrica,a,Europe,themostdistantislandsofIndonesia,wherevertheyappeared.Somealsobelievethatmultiregionalismencesaracistviewthatanthropologytookaverylongtimetoriditselfof.Intheearly1960s,afamousanthropologistnamedCarletonoftheUyofPennsylvaniasuggestedthatsomemodernraceshavedifferentsourcesin,implyingthatsomeofusefrommoresuperiorstockthahishearkenedbafortablytoearlierbeliefsthatsomemodernracessuchastheAfri“Bushmen”
(properlytheKalahariSan)andAustralianAbinesweremoreprimitivethanothers.
Whateveraypersonallyhavefelt,theimplicationformanypeoplewasthatsomeracesareilymoreadvanced,andthatsomehumanscouldessentiallystitutedifferentspecies.Theview,soinstinctivelyoffensivenoidelypopularizedinmanyrespectableplatilfairlyrettimes.IhavebeforemeapopularbookpublishedbyTime-LifePublicationsin1961calledTheEpianbasedonaseriesofarticlesinLifemagazine.Inityoufindsuentsas“Rhodesianman...livedasretlyas25,00oandmayhavebeenaoroftheAfriegroes.HisbrainsizewasclosetothatofHomosapiens.”InotherwordsblackAfriswereretlydesdedfromcreaturesthatwereonly“close”toHomosapiens.
Thorneemphatically(andIbelievesincerely)dismissestheideathathistheoryisinanymeasureracistandatsfortheuniformityofhumanevolutionbysuggestingthattherewasalotofmovementbadforthbetweenculturesandregions.“There’snoreasontosupposethatpeopleoinonedire,”hesays.“Peopleweremovingalloverthepladwheretheymettheyalmostcertainlysharedgeicmaterialthroughinterbreeding.Newarrivalsdidn’treplacetheindigenouspopulations,theyjoihem.Theybecamethem.”Helikeuationtowhenexplorerslikeagellanenteredremotepeoplesforthefirsttime.“Theywereingsofdifferentspecies,butofthesamespecieswithsomephysicaldifferences.”
Whatyouactuallyseeinthefossilrecord,Thorneinsists,isasmooth,tinuoustransition.“There’safamousskullfromPetralonainGreece,datingfromabout300,00o,thathasbeenamatteroftentionamongtraditionalistsbecauseitseemsinsomewaysHomoerectusbutinotherwaysHomosapiens.Well,whatwesayisthatthisisjustwhatyouwouldexpecttofindinspeciesthatwereevolvingratherthanbeingdisplaced.”
Ohingthatwouldhelptoresolvematterswouldbeevidenceofinterbreeding,butthatisnotatalleasytoprove,ordisprove,fromfossils.In1999,archeologistsinPalfoundtheskeletonofachildaboutfouryearsoldthatdied24,50o.Theskeletonwasmodernoverall,butwithcertainarchaic,possiblyNeaal,characteristiusuallysturdylegboeethbearingadistinctive“shoveling”pattern,and(thoughnoteveryoneagreesonit)aionatthebackoftheskullcalledasuprainiacfossa,afeatureexclusivetoNeaals.ErikTrinkausofWashingtonUyinSt.Louis,theleadingauthorityonNeaals,annouhechildtobeahybrid:proofthatmodernhumansandNeaalsinterbred.Others,however,weretroubledthattheNeaalandmoderuresweren’tmoreblended.Asoicputit:“Ifyoulookatamule,youdon’thavethefrontendlookinglikeadonkeyandthebadlookinglikeahorse.”
IanTattersalldeclaredittobenothingmorethan“akymodernchild.”Heacceptsthattheremaywellhavebeensome“hanky-panky”betweenNeaalsandmoderns,butdoesn’tbelieveitcouldhaveresultedinreproductivelysuccessfuloffspring.
1“Idon’tknowofanytwanismsfromanyrealmofbiologythatarethatdifferentandstillinthesamespecies,”hesays.
Withthefossilrecordsounhelpful,stistshaveturnedincreasinglytogeicstudies,inparticularthepartknownasmitodrialDNA.MitodrialDNAwasonlydiscoveredin1964,butbythe1980ssomeingenioussoulsattheUyofCaliforniaatBerkeleyhadrealizedthatithastwofeaturesthatlenditaparticularvenienceasakindofmolecularclock:itispassedononlythroughthefemaleline,soitdoesn’tbeescrambledwithpaternalDNAwitheaewgeion,anditmutatesabouttwentytimesfasterthannormalnuclearDNA,makingiteasiertodetedfollowgeicpatterime.Bytragtheratesofmutationtheycouldworkoutthegeichistoryaionshipsofwholegroupsofpeople.
In1987,theBerkeleyteam,ledbythelateAllanWilson,didananalysisofmitodrialDNAfrom147individualsanddeclaredthattheriseofanatomicallymodernhumansoccurredinAfricawithi140,000yearsandthat“allpresent-dayhumansaredesdedfromthatpopulation.”Itwasaseriousblowtothemultiregionalists.Butthenpeoplebegantolookalittlemorecloselyatthedata.Ohemostextraordinarypoints—almosttooextraordinarytocreditreally—wasthatthe“Afris”usediudywereactuallyAfri-Ameris,whosegeneshadobviouslybeensubjectedtosiderablemediationifewhundredyears.Doubtsalsosoonemergedabouttheassumedratesofmutations.
By1992,thestudywaslargelydiscredited.Buttheteiquesofgeialysistioberefined,andin1997stistsfromtheUyofMuniagedtoextradanalyzesomeDNAfromthearmboheinalNeaalman,andthistimetheevideoodup.TheMunichstudyfoundthattheNeaalDNAwasunlikeanyDNAfouhnow,stronglyindigthattherewasiebetweenNeaalsandmodernhumans.Nowthisreallywasablowtomultiregionalism.
1OnepossibilityisthatNeaalsandagnonshaddifferentnumbersofosomes,aplicationthatonlyariseswhenspeciesthatareclosebutnotquiteidenticaljoin.Intheequineworld,forexample,horseshave64osomesanddonkeys62.Matethetwoandyougetanoffspringroductivelyuselessnumberofosomes,63.Youhave,inshort,asterilemule.
Theninlate2000NatureandotherpublicatioedonaSwedishstudyofthemitodrialDNAoffifty-threepeople,whichsuggestedthatallmodernhumansemergedfromAfricawithi100,000yearsandcamefromabreedingstoorethan10,000individuals.Soonafterward,Erider,directoroftheWhiteheadInstitute/MassachusettsInstituteofTeologyterfenomeResearnouhatmodernEuropeans,andperhapspeoplefartherafield,aredesdedfrom“nomorethanafewhundredAfriswholefttheirhomelandasretlyas25,00o.”
Aswehavenotedelsewhereinthebook,modernhumanbeingsshowremarkablylittlegeicvariability—“there’smorediversityinonesocialgroupoffifty-fivechimpsthaniirehumanpopulation,”asohorityhasputit—andthiswouldexplainwhy.
Becauseweareretlydesdedfromasmallfoundingpopulation,therehasimeenoughorpeopleenoughtoprovideasourceofgreatvariability.Itseemedaprettysevereblowtomultiregionalism.“Afterthis,”aPennStateacademictoldtheWashingtonPost,“peoplewoooedaboutthemultiregionaltheory,whichhasverylittleevidence.”
ButallofthisoverlookedthemoreorlessinfinitecapacityforsurpriseofferedbytheaMungopeopleofwesternNewSouthWales.Inearly2001,ThorneandhiscolleaguesattheAustralianNationalUyreportedthattheyhadrecoveredDNAfromtheoldestoftheMungospes—nowdatedat62,000years—andthatthisDNAprovedtobe“geicallydistinct.”
TheMungoMan,acctothesefindings,wasanatomicallymodern—justlikeyouacarriedaiieage.HismitodrialDNAisnolongerfoundinlivinghumans,asitshouldbeif,likeallothermodernpeople,hewasdesdedfrompeoplewholeftAfritheretpast.
“Itturnedeverythingupsidedownagain,”saysThorhundisguiseddelight.
Thenotherevenmorecuriousanomaliesbegantoturnup.RosalindHarding,apopulatioicistattheInstituteofBiologithropologyinOxford,whilestudyiaglobingenesinmodernpeople,foundtwovariantsthatareongAsiansandtheindigenouspeopleofAustralia,buthardlyexistinAfrica.Thevariantgenes,sheiscertain,arosemorethan200,00onotinAfrica,butiAsia—longbeforemodernHomosapiensreachedtheregion.TheonlywaytoatforthemistosaythataorsofpeoplenowlivinginAsiaincludedarchaiinids—JavaManandthelike.Iingly,thissamevariaheJavaMaospeak—turnsupinmodernpopulationsinOxfordshire.
fused,IwenttoseeHardingattheinstitute,whihabitsanoldbrickvillaonBanburyRoadinOxford,inmoreorlesstheneighborhoodwhereBilltohisstudentdays.HardingisasmallandchirpyAustralian,fromBrisbaneinally,withtherareknackforbeingamusedandearthesametime.
“Don’tknow,”shesaidatonce,grinning,whenIaskedherhowpeopleinOxfordshireharboredsequencesofbetaglobinthatshouldhere.“Onthewhole,”shewentonmoresomberly,“thegeicrecordsupportstheout-of-Africahypothesis.Butthenyoufindtheseanomalousclusters,whichmostgeicistsprefernottotalkabout.There’shugeamountsofinformationthatwouldbeavailabletousifonlywecoulduandit,butwedo.
We’vebarelybegun.”SherefusedtobedrawnoutonwhattheexistenceofAsian-ingenesinOxfordshiretellsusotherthanthatthesituationisclearlyplicated.“Allwesayatthisstageisthatitisveryuntidyandwedon’treallyknowwhy.”
Atthetimeofourmeeting,inearly2002,anotherOxfordstistnamedBryanSykeshadjustproducedapopularbookcalledTheSevenDaughtersofEveinwhich,usingstudiesofmitodrialDNA,hehadclaimedtobeabletotraearlyalllivingEuropeansbacktoafoundingpopulationofjustsevehedaughtersofEveofthetitle—wholivedbetween10,000and45,00oiimeknowntosceasthePaleolithic.ToeachofthesewomenSykeshadgivenaname—Ursula,Xenia,Jasmine,andsoon—andeveailedpersonalhistory.(“Ursulawashermother’ssedchild.Thefirsthadbeentakenbyaleopardwhenhewasonlytwo....”)WhenIaskedHardingaboutthebook,shesmiledbroadlybutcarefully,asifnotquitecertaiogowithheranswer.“Well,Isupposeyoumustgivehimsomecreditforhelpingtopopularizeadifficultsubject,”shesaidandpausedthoughtfully.“Andthereremainstheremotepossibilitythathe’sright.”Shelaughed,theoently:
“Datafromanysinglegeneotreallytellyouanythingsodefinitive.IfyoufollowthemitodrialDNAbackwards,itwilltakeyoutoacertainplace—toanUrsulaorTaraorwhatever.ButifyoutakeanyotherbitofDNA,aall,andtraceitback,itwilltakeyousomeplaceelsealtogether.”
Itwasalittle,Igathered,likefollowingaroadrandomlyoutofLondonandfindingthateventuallyitendsatJohnO’Groats,andcludingfromthisthatanyoneinLondonmustthereforehaveefromthenorthofScotland.Theymighthaveefromthere,ofcourse,butequallytheycouldhavearrivedfromanyofhundredsofotherplaces.Inthissense,acct,everygeneisadifferenthighway,andwehaveonlybarelybeguntomaptheroutes.“Nosinglegeneisevergoingtotellyouthewholestory,”shesaid.
Sogeicstudiesaren’ttobetrusted?
“Ohyoutrustthestudieswelle松语文学www.16sy.coM免费小说阅读
Itwassosuperiortoexistingtoolsthatsoonotherswerefollowingtheior’sleadandmakinghaheirowuallywholesocietiesexistedthatseemedtodolittleelse.“Theymadethemihousands,”saysIanTattersall.“TherearesomeplaAfricawhereyouliterally’tmovewithoutsteppingo’sstrangebecausetheyarequiteintensiveobjeake.Itwasasiftheymadethemforthesheerpleasureofit.”
FromashelfinhissunnyworkroomTattersalltookdownanenormouscast,perhapsafootandahalflongaincheswideatitswidestpoint,andhaome.Itwasshapedlikeaspearhead,butohesizeofastepping-stone.Asafiberglasscastitweighedonlyafewounces,buttheinal,whichwasfoundinTanzania,weighedtwenty-fivepounds.“Itwaspletelyuselessasatool,”Tattersallsaid.“Itwouldhavetakentwopeopletoliftitadequately,ahenitwouldhavebeenexhaustingtotrytopoundanythingwithit.”
“Whatwasitusedforthen?”
Tattersallgaveagenialshrug,pleasedatthemysteryofit.“musthavehadsomesymbolicimportawelyguesswhat.”
TheaxesbecameknownasAcheuleantools,afterSt.Acheul,asuburbofAmiensinnorthernFrance,wherethefirstexampleswerefoundintheeeury,andtrastwiththeolder,simplertoolsknownasOldowan,inallyfoundatOlduvaiGeinTanzania.Iextbooks,Oldowantoolsareusuallyshownasblunt,rounded,hand-sizedstones.Infact,paleoanthropologistsobelievethatthetoolpartofOldowanrockswerethepiecesflakedofftheselargerstones,whichcouldthenbeusedforcutting.
Nowhere’sthemystery.Whenearlymodernhumans—theoneswhowouldeventuallybeeus—startedtomoveoutofAfriethingoverahuhousandyearsago,Acheuleantoolsweretheteologyofchoice.TheseearlyHomosapienslovedtheirAcheuleantools,too.Theycarriedthemvastdistances.Sometimestheyeventookunshapedrockswiththemtomakeintotoolslateron.Theywere,inaword,devotedtotheteology.
ButalthoughAcheuleantoolshavebeenfoundthroughoutAfrica,Europe,aernaralAsia,theyhavealmostneverbeenfoundintheFarEast.Thisisdeeplypuzzling.
Inthe1940saHarvardpaleontologistnamedHallumMoviusdrewsomethingcalledtheMoviusline,dividingthesidewithAcheuleantoolsfromtheohout.ThelinerunsinasoutheasterlydireacrossEuropeandtheMiddleEasttotheviityofmodern-dayCalcuttaandBangladesh.BeyondtheMoviusline,acrossthewholeofsoutheastAsiaandintoa,onlytheolder,simplerOldowantoolshavebeenfound.WeknowthatHomosapiefarbeyondthispoint,sowhywouldtheycarryanadvandtreasuredstoeologytotheedgeoftheFarEastandthenjustabandonit?
“Thattroubledmeforalongtime,”recallsAlanThorheAustralianNationalUyinberra.“ThewholeofmodernanthropologywasbuiltroundtheideathathumanscameoutofAfritwowaves—afirstwaveofHomoerectus,whichbecameJavaManandPekingManandthelike,andalater,moreadvancedwaveofHomosapiens,whichdisplacedthefirstlot.YettoacceptthatyoumustbelievethatHomosapiensgotsofarwiththeirmoremodernteologyandthen,forwhateverreason,gaveitup.Itwasallverypuzzling,tosaytheleast.”
Asittur,therewouldbeagreatdealelsetobepuzzledabout,ahemostpuzzlingfindingsofallwouldefromThorne’sownpartoftheworld,ibackofAustralia.In1968,ageologistnamedJimBowlerokingaroundonalong-driedlakebedcalledMungoinaparchedandlonelyerofwesternNewSouthWaleswhehingveryuedcaughthiseye.Stigoutofacrest-shapedsandridgeofatypeknownasalueweresomehumathetime,itwasbelievedthathumanshadbeeninAustraliafornomorethan8,000years,butMungohadbeendryfor12,000years.Sowhatwasanyonedoinginsuinhospitableplace?
Theanswer,providedbycarbondating,wasthatthebones’ownerhadlivedtherewhenLakeMungowasamuchmreeablehabitat,adozenmileslong,fullofwaterandfish,fringedbypleasantgrovesofcasuarioeveryone’sastonishment,thebourtobe23,000yearsold.Otherbonesfoundnearbyweredatedtoasmuchas60,000years.
Thiswasuedtothepointofseemingpracticallyimpossible.AtnotimesininidsfirstaroseohhasAustralianotbeenanisland.Anyhumanbeingswhoarrivedtheremusthaveebysea,inlargeenoughostartabreedingpopulation,aftercrossingsixtymilesormoreofopehouthavinganywayofknowingthatavelandfallawaitedthem.HavinglaheMungopeoplehadthenfoundtheirwaymorethantwothousandmilesinlandfromAustralia’snorthcoast—thepresumedpoiry—whichsuggests,acctoareportintheProceedingsoftheNationalAcademyofSces,“thatpeoplemayhavefirstarrivedsubstantiallyearlierthan60,00o.”
Howtheygotthereandwhytheycamearequestionsthat’tbeanswered.Acctomostanthropologytexts,there’snoevidepeoplecouldevenspeak60,00o,muchlessehesortsofcooperativeeffortsnecessarytobuildo-worthycraftandizeislandtis.
“There’sjustawholelotwedon’tknowaboutthemovementsofpeoplebeforerecordedhistory,”AlanThoroldmewhehiminberra.“Doyouknowthatwheeenth-turyanthropologistsfirstgottoPapuaNewGuiheyfoundpeopleinthehighlandsoftheinterior,ihemostinaccessibleterraih,growipotatoes.SweetpotatoesarenativetoSouthAmerica.SohowdidtheygettoPapuaNewGuinea?Wedon’tknow.Don’thavethefaiidea.Butwhatiscertainisthatpeoplehavebeenmovingaroundwithsiderableassurednessferthantraditionallythought,andalmostcertainlysharinggenesaswellasinformation.”
Theproblem,asever,isthefossilrecord.“Veryfewpartsoftheworldareevenvaguelyamehelong-termpreservationofhumanremains,”saysThorne,asharp-eyedmanwithawhitegoateeandabutfriendlymanner.“Ifitweren’tforafewproductiveareaslikeHadarandOlduvaiiAfricawe’dknhteninglylittle.Andwhenyoulookelsewhere,oftenwedoknhteninglylittle.ThewholeofIndiahasyieldedjustoneahumanfossil,fromabout300,00o.BetweenIraqanam—that’sadistane5,000kilometers—therehavebeenjusttwo:theoneinIndiaandaNeaalian.”Hegrihat’snotawholehellofalottoworkwith.You’releftwiththepositionthatyou’vegotafewproductiveareasforhumanfossils,liketheGreatRiftValleyinAfridMungohereinAustralia,andverylittleiween.It’snotsurprisingthatpaleontologistshavetroubleegthedots.”
Thetraditionaltheorytoexplainhumas—andtheoillacceptedbythemajorityofpeopleinthefield—isthathumansdispersedacrossEurasiaintwowaves.ThefirstwavesistedofHomoerectus,wholeftAfricaremarkablyquickly—almostassoonastheyemergedasaspecies—beginningnearlytwomillionyearsago.Overtime,astheysettledindifferentregions,theseearlyerectsfurtherevolvedintodistinctivetypes—intoJavaManandPekingManinAsia,andHomoheidelbergensisandfinallyHomoneahalensisinEurope.
Then,somethingoverahuhousandyearsago,asmarter,litherspeciesofcreature—theaorsofeveryoneofusalivetoday—aroseontheAfriplainsandbeganradiatingoutwardinasedwave.Wherevertheywent,acctothistheory,thesenewHomosapiensdisplacedtheirduller,lessadeptpredecessors.Quitehowtheydidthishasalwaysbeenamatterofdisputation.Nosignsofslaughterhaveeverbeenfound,somostauthoritiesbelievethenewerhominidssimplyoutpetedtheolderohoughotherfaayalsohavetributed.“Perhapswegavethemsmallpox,”suggestsTattersall.“There’snorealwayoftelling.Theoaintyisthatweareherenowandtheyaren’t.”
Thesefirstmodernhumansaresurprisinglyshadowy.Weknowlessaboutourselves,curiouslyenough,thanaboutalmostanyotherlineofhominids.Itisoddindeed,asTattersallhatthemostretmajoreventinhumanevolution—theemergenceofourownspecies—isperhapsthemostobscureofall.”Nobodyevenquiteagreewheretrulymodernhumansfirstappearinthefossilreanybooksplacetheirdebutatabout120,00ointheformofremainsfoundattheKlasiesRiverMouthinSouthAfrica,butnoteveryoneacceptsthatthesewerefullymodernpeople.TattersallandSchwartzmaintainthat“whetheranyorallofthemactuallyrepresentourspeciesstillawaitsdefinitiveclarification.”
Thefirstundisputedappearanosapiensisiererranean,aroundmodern-dayIsrael,wheretheybegintoshowupabout100,00o—buteveheyaredescribed(byTrinkausandShipman)as“odd,difficult-to-classifyandpoorlyknown.”NeaalswerealreadywellestablishedintheregionandhadatypeoftoolkitknownasMousterian,whichthemodernhumansevidentlyfoundworthyenoughtoborrow.
NoNeaalremainshaveeverbeenfoundinnorthAfrica,buttheirtoolkitsturnupallovertheplaebodymusthavetakehere:modernhumaheonlydidate.ItisalsoknownthatNeaalsandmodernhumaedinsomefashionfortensofthousandsofyearsintheMiddleEast.“Wedon’tknowiftheytime-sharedthesamespaceoractuallylivedsidebyside,”Tattersallsays,butthemodernstinuedhappilytouseNeaaltools—hardlyvingevidenceofoverwhelmingsuperiority.Nolesscuriously,AcheuleantoolsarefoundintheMiddleEastwelloveramillionyearsago,butscarcelyexistinEuropeuntiljust300,00o.Again,whypeoplewhohadtheteologydidn’ttakethetoolswiththemisamystery.
Foralongtime,itwasbelievedthattheagnons,asmodernhumansinEuropebecameknown,drovetheNeaalsbeforethemastheyadvancedacrosstheti,eventuallyfthemtoitswesternmargins,whereessentiallytheyhadnochoicebuttofallintheseaoextinfact,itisnowknownthatagnonswereinthefarwestofEuropeataboutthesametimetheywerealsoinginfromtheeast.“Europerettyemptyplathosedays,”Tattersallsays.“Theymaynothaveenteredeachotherallthatoftehalltheiringsandgoings.”Onecuriosityoftheagnons’arrivalisthatitcameatatimeknowntopaleoclimatologyastheBoutellierinterval,whenEuropelungingfromaperiodofrelativemildnessianspellofpunishingcold.
WhateveritwasthatdrewthemtoEurope,itwasn’tthegloriousweather.
Inanycase,theideathatNeaalscrumpledinthefapetitionfromnewlyarrivedagnonsstrainsagainsttheevideleastalittle.Neaalswerenothingifnottough.Fortensofthousandsofyearstheylivedthroughditionsthatnomodernhumanoutsideafewpolarstistsandexplorershasexperienced.Duringtheworstoftheiceages,blizzardswithhurrie-fordswereon.Temperaturesroutinelyfellto50degreesbelowzeroFahre.PolarbearspaddedacrossthesnowyvalesofsouthernEngland.
Neaalsnaturallyretreatedfromtheworstofit,butevensotheywillhaveexperiencedweatherthatwasatleastasbadasamodernSiberianwiheysuffered,tobesure—aNeaalwholivedmuchpastthirtywasludeed—butasaspeciestheyweremagnifitlyresilientandpracticallyiructible.Theysurvivedforatleastahuhousandyears,andperhapstwicethat,overaretgfromGibraltartoUzbekistan,whichisaprettysuccessfulrunforanyspeciesofbeing.
Quitewhotheywereandwhattheywerelikeremainmattersofdisagreementanduainty.RightupuntilthemiddleofthetwehturytheacceptedanthropologicalviewoftheNeaalwasthathewasdim,stooped,shuffling,andsimian—thequintessentialcaveman.Itwasonlyapainfulactthatproddedstiststoresiderthisview.In1947,whiledoingfieldworkintheSahara,aFranco-AlgeriaologistnamedCamilleArambtefromthemiddaysuhewingofhislightairplane.Ashesatthere,atireburstfromtheheat,andtheplaippedsuddenly,strikinghimapainfulblowontheupperbody.LaterinParishewentforanX-rayofhisnednoticedthathisowebraewerealiglylikethoseofthestoopedandhulkingNeaal.
EitherhehysiologicallyprimitiveorNeaal’sposturehadbeenmisdescribed.Infact,itwasthelatter.Neaalvertebraewerenotsimianatall.ItgedutterlyhowweviewedNeaals—butonlysomeofthetime,itappears.
ItisstillohatNeaalslackedtheintelligenceorfibertopeteonequaltermswiththeti’sslenderandmorecerebrallynimblenewers,Homosapiens.Hereisatypientfromaretbook:“ModernhumaralizedthisadvaheNeaal’ssiderablyheartierphysique]withbetterclothierfiresaershelter;meanwhiletheNeaalswerestuckwithanoversizebodythatrequiredmorefoodtosustain.”Inotherwords,theveryfactorsthathadallowedthemtosurvivesuccessfullyforahuhousandyearssuddenlybecameaninsuperablehandicap.
AbovealltheissuethatisalmostneveraddressedisthatNeaalshadbrainsthatweresignifitlylargerthanthoseofmodernpeople—1.8litersforNeaalsversus1.4formodernpeople,acctoonecalculation.ThisismorethanthediffereweenmodernHomosapiensandlateHomoerectus,aspecieswearehappytardasbarelyhuman.Theargumentputforwardisthatalthoughourbrainsweresmaller,theyweresomehowmoreeffit.IbelieveIspeakthetruthwhenIobservethatnowhereelseinhumanevolutionissuargumentmade.
Sowhythen,youmaywellask,iftheNeaalsweresostoutandadaptableandcerebrallywellendowed,aretheynolohus?Onepossible(butmuchdisputed)ahatperhapstheyare.AlanThorneisoheleadingproposofaivetheory,knownasthemultiregionalhypothesis,whichholdsthathumanevolutionhasbeentinuous—thatjustasaustralopitheesevolvedintoHomohabilisandHomoheidelbergensisbecameovertimeHomoneahalensis,somodernHomosapienssimplyemergedfrommoreaHomoforms.Homoerectusis,onthisview,notaseparatespeciesbutjustatransitionalphase.ThusmodernesearedesdedfromaHomoerectusforebearsina,modernEuropeansfromaEuropeanHomoerectus,andsoon.
“ExceptthatformetherearenoHomoerectus,”saysThorhinkit’satermwhichhasoutliveditsusefulness.Forme,Homoerectusissimplyanearlierpartofus.IbelieveonlyonespeanshaseverleftAfridthatspeciesisHomosapiens.”
Opposofthemultiregionaltheoryrejectit,inthefirstinstahegroundsthatitrequiresanimprobableamountofparallelevolutionbyhominidsthroughouttheOldWorld—inAfrica,a,Europe,themostdistantislandsofIndonesia,wherevertheyappeared.Somealsobelievethatmultiregionalismencesaracistviewthatanthropologytookaverylongtimetoriditselfof.Intheearly1960s,afamousanthropologistnamedCarletonoftheUyofPennsylvaniasuggestedthatsomemodernraceshavedifferentsourcesin,implyingthatsomeofusefrommoresuperiorstockthahishearkenedbafortablytoearlierbeliefsthatsomemodernracessuchastheAfri“Bushmen”
(properlytheKalahariSan)andAustralianAbinesweremoreprimitivethanothers.
Whateveraypersonallyhavefelt,theimplicationformanypeoplewasthatsomeracesareilymoreadvanced,andthatsomehumanscouldessentiallystitutedifferentspecies.Theview,soinstinctivelyoffensivenoidelypopularizedinmanyrespectableplatilfairlyrettimes.IhavebeforemeapopularbookpublishedbyTime-LifePublicationsin1961calledTheEpianbasedonaseriesofarticlesinLifemagazine.Inityoufindsuentsas“Rhodesianman...livedasretlyas25,00oandmayhavebeenaoroftheAfriegroes.HisbrainsizewasclosetothatofHomosapiens.”InotherwordsblackAfriswereretlydesdedfromcreaturesthatwereonly“close”toHomosapiens.
Thorneemphatically(andIbelievesincerely)dismissestheideathathistheoryisinanymeasureracistandatsfortheuniformityofhumanevolutionbysuggestingthattherewasalotofmovementbadforthbetweenculturesandregions.“There’snoreasontosupposethatpeopleoinonedire,”hesays.“Peopleweremovingalloverthepladwheretheymettheyalmostcertainlysharedgeicmaterialthroughinterbreeding.Newarrivalsdidn’treplacetheindigenouspopulations,theyjoihem.Theybecamethem.”Helikeuationtowhenexplorerslikeagellanenteredremotepeoplesforthefirsttime.“Theywereingsofdifferentspecies,butofthesamespecieswithsomephysicaldifferences.”
Whatyouactuallyseeinthefossilrecord,Thorneinsists,isasmooth,tinuoustransition.“There’safamousskullfromPetralonainGreece,datingfromabout300,00o,thathasbeenamatteroftentionamongtraditionalistsbecauseitseemsinsomewaysHomoerectusbutinotherwaysHomosapiens.Well,whatwesayisthatthisisjustwhatyouwouldexpecttofindinspeciesthatwereevolvingratherthanbeingdisplaced.”
Ohingthatwouldhelptoresolvematterswouldbeevidenceofinterbreeding,butthatisnotatalleasytoprove,ordisprove,fromfossils.In1999,archeologistsinPalfoundtheskeletonofachildaboutfouryearsoldthatdied24,50o.Theskeletonwasmodernoverall,butwithcertainarchaic,possiblyNeaal,characteristiusuallysturdylegboeethbearingadistinctive“shoveling”pattern,and(thoughnoteveryoneagreesonit)aionatthebackoftheskullcalledasuprainiacfossa,afeatureexclusivetoNeaals.ErikTrinkausofWashingtonUyinSt.Louis,theleadingauthorityonNeaals,annouhechildtobeahybrid:proofthatmodernhumansandNeaalsinterbred.Others,however,weretroubledthattheNeaalandmoderuresweren’tmoreblended.Asoicputit:“Ifyoulookatamule,youdon’thavethefrontendlookinglikeadonkeyandthebadlookinglikeahorse.”
IanTattersalldeclaredittobenothingmorethan“akymodernchild.”Heacceptsthattheremaywellhavebeensome“hanky-panky”betweenNeaalsandmoderns,butdoesn’tbelieveitcouldhaveresultedinreproductivelysuccessfuloffspring.
1“Idon’tknowofanytwanismsfromanyrealmofbiologythatarethatdifferentandstillinthesamespecies,”hesays.
Withthefossilrecordsounhelpful,stistshaveturnedincreasinglytogeicstudies,inparticularthepartknownasmitodrialDNA.MitodrialDNAwasonlydiscoveredin1964,butbythe1980ssomeingenioussoulsattheUyofCaliforniaatBerkeleyhadrealizedthatithastwofeaturesthatlenditaparticularvenienceasakindofmolecularclock:itispassedononlythroughthefemaleline,soitdoesn’tbeescrambledwithpaternalDNAwitheaewgeion,anditmutatesabouttwentytimesfasterthannormalnuclearDNA,makingiteasiertodetedfollowgeicpatterime.Bytragtheratesofmutationtheycouldworkoutthegeichistoryaionshipsofwholegroupsofpeople.
In1987,theBerkeleyteam,ledbythelateAllanWilson,didananalysisofmitodrialDNAfrom147individualsanddeclaredthattheriseofanatomicallymodernhumansoccurredinAfricawithi140,000yearsandthat“allpresent-dayhumansaredesdedfromthatpopulation.”Itwasaseriousblowtothemultiregionalists.Butthenpeoplebegantolookalittlemorecloselyatthedata.Ohemostextraordinarypoints—almosttooextraordinarytocreditreally—wasthatthe“Afris”usediudywereactuallyAfri-Ameris,whosegeneshadobviouslybeensubjectedtosiderablemediationifewhundredyears.Doubtsalsosoonemergedabouttheassumedratesofmutations.
By1992,thestudywaslargelydiscredited.Buttheteiquesofgeialysistioberefined,andin1997stistsfromtheUyofMuniagedtoextradanalyzesomeDNAfromthearmboheinalNeaalman,andthistimetheevideoodup.TheMunichstudyfoundthattheNeaalDNAwasunlikeanyDNAfouhnow,stronglyindigthattherewasiebetweenNeaalsandmodernhumans.Nowthisreallywasablowtomultiregionalism.
1OnepossibilityisthatNeaalsandagnonshaddifferentnumbersofosomes,aplicationthatonlyariseswhenspeciesthatareclosebutnotquiteidenticaljoin.Intheequineworld,forexample,horseshave64osomesanddonkeys62.Matethetwoandyougetanoffspringroductivelyuselessnumberofosomes,63.Youhave,inshort,asterilemule.
Theninlate2000NatureandotherpublicatioedonaSwedishstudyofthemitodrialDNAoffifty-threepeople,whichsuggestedthatallmodernhumansemergedfromAfricawithi100,000yearsandcamefromabreedingstoorethan10,000individuals.Soonafterward,Erider,directoroftheWhiteheadInstitute/MassachusettsInstituteofTeologyterfenomeResearnouhatmodernEuropeans,andperhapspeoplefartherafield,aredesdedfrom“nomorethanafewhundredAfriswholefttheirhomelandasretlyas25,00o.”
Aswehavenotedelsewhereinthebook,modernhumanbeingsshowremarkablylittlegeicvariability—“there’smorediversityinonesocialgroupoffifty-fivechimpsthaniirehumanpopulation,”asohorityhasputit—andthiswouldexplainwhy.
Becauseweareretlydesdedfromasmallfoundingpopulation,therehasimeenoughorpeopleenoughtoprovideasourceofgreatvariability.Itseemedaprettysevereblowtomultiregionalism.“Afterthis,”aPennStateacademictoldtheWashingtonPost,“peoplewoooedaboutthemultiregionaltheory,whichhasverylittleevidence.”
ButallofthisoverlookedthemoreorlessinfinitecapacityforsurpriseofferedbytheaMungopeopleofwesternNewSouthWales.Inearly2001,ThorneandhiscolleaguesattheAustralianNationalUyreportedthattheyhadrecoveredDNAfromtheoldestoftheMungospes—nowdatedat62,000years—andthatthisDNAprovedtobe“geicallydistinct.”
TheMungoMan,acctothesefindings,wasanatomicallymodern—justlikeyouacarriedaiieage.HismitodrialDNAisnolongerfoundinlivinghumans,asitshouldbeif,likeallothermodernpeople,hewasdesdedfrompeoplewholeftAfritheretpast.
“Itturnedeverythingupsidedownagain,”saysThorhundisguiseddelight.
Thenotherevenmorecuriousanomaliesbegantoturnup.RosalindHarding,apopulatioicistattheInstituteofBiologithropologyinOxford,whilestudyiaglobingenesinmodernpeople,foundtwovariantsthatareongAsiansandtheindigenouspeopleofAustralia,buthardlyexistinAfrica.Thevariantgenes,sheiscertain,arosemorethan200,00onotinAfrica,butiAsia—longbeforemodernHomosapiensreachedtheregion.TheonlywaytoatforthemistosaythataorsofpeoplenowlivinginAsiaincludedarchaiinids—JavaManandthelike.Iingly,thissamevariaheJavaMaospeak—turnsupinmodernpopulationsinOxfordshire.
fused,IwenttoseeHardingattheinstitute,whihabitsanoldbrickvillaonBanburyRoadinOxford,inmoreorlesstheneighborhoodwhereBilltohisstudentdays.HardingisasmallandchirpyAustralian,fromBrisbaneinally,withtherareknackforbeingamusedandearthesametime.
“Don’tknow,”shesaidatonce,grinning,whenIaskedherhowpeopleinOxfordshireharboredsequencesofbetaglobinthatshouldhere.“Onthewhole,”shewentonmoresomberly,“thegeicrecordsupportstheout-of-Africahypothesis.Butthenyoufindtheseanomalousclusters,whichmostgeicistsprefernottotalkabout.There’shugeamountsofinformationthatwouldbeavailabletousifonlywecoulduandit,butwedo.
We’vebarelybegun.”SherefusedtobedrawnoutonwhattheexistenceofAsian-ingenesinOxfordshiretellsusotherthanthatthesituationisclearlyplicated.“Allwesayatthisstageisthatitisveryuntidyandwedon’treallyknowwhy.”
Atthetimeofourmeeting,inearly2002,anotherOxfordstistnamedBryanSykeshadjustproducedapopularbookcalledTheSevenDaughtersofEveinwhich,usingstudiesofmitodrialDNA,hehadclaimedtobeabletotraearlyalllivingEuropeansbacktoafoundingpopulationofjustsevehedaughtersofEveofthetitle—wholivedbetween10,000and45,00oiimeknowntosceasthePaleolithic.ToeachofthesewomenSykeshadgivenaname—Ursula,Xenia,Jasmine,andsoon—andeveailedpersonalhistory.(“Ursulawashermother’ssedchild.Thefirsthadbeentakenbyaleopardwhenhewasonlytwo....”)WhenIaskedHardingaboutthebook,shesmiledbroadlybutcarefully,asifnotquitecertaiogowithheranswer.“Well,Isupposeyoumustgivehimsomecreditforhelpingtopopularizeadifficultsubject,”shesaidandpausedthoughtfully.“Andthereremainstheremotepossibilitythathe’sright.”Shelaughed,theoently:
“Datafromanysinglegeneotreallytellyouanythingsodefinitive.IfyoufollowthemitodrialDNAbackwards,itwilltakeyoutoacertainplace—toanUrsulaorTaraorwhatever.ButifyoutakeanyotherbitofDNA,aall,andtraceitback,itwilltakeyousomeplaceelsealtogether.”
Itwasalittle,Igathered,likefollowingaroadrandomlyoutofLondonandfindingthateventuallyitendsatJohnO’Groats,andcludingfromthisthatanyoneinLondonmustthereforehaveefromthenorthofScotland.Theymighthaveefromthere,ofcourse,butequallytheycouldhavearrivedfromanyofhundredsofotherplaces.Inthissense,acct,everygeneisadifferenthighway,andwehaveonlybarelybeguntomaptheroutes.“Nosinglegeneisevergoingtotellyouthewholestory,”shesaid.
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